This database was last revised on 1 April 1998 by Brad Griffith.
1. Anon. 1989. Ecosystems - Conservation and Restoration. Pages 13-20 in Research Priorities for Conservation Biology.
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2. Anon. 1989. The Harasis and the Re-Introduction Project. Pages 202-221 in Animal Re-Introductions.
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3. Anon. 1989. Operation Oryx, Captive Breeding and Re-Introduction Planning. Pages 44-67 in Animal Re-Introductions.
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4. Anon. 1989. The Re-Introduction Area and the Harasis Tribe. Pages 68-93 in Animal Re-Introductions.
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5. Anon. 1989. Reproduction, Propagation, and Release. Pages 47-54 in Research Priorities for Conservation Biology.
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6. Anon. 1989. Towards a Rationale for Re-Introductions. Pages 239-257 in Animal Re-Introductions.
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7. Anon. 1991. The Consequences of Introductions and Extinctions. Pages 334-356 in The Balance of Nature , Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
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8. Anon. 1991. Species Differences and Community Structure as Explanations of Why Introductions Fail. Pages 173-188 in The Balance of Nature , Univ Chicago Press, Chicago, IL .
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9. Akcakaya, H. R. 1990. Bald Ibis Geronticus-Eremita Population in Turkey - An Evaluation of the Captive Breeding Project for Reintroduction. Biological Conservation 51(3):225-237.
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10. Allen, D. H. Franzreb K. E. Escano R. E. F. 1993. Efficacy of Translocation Strategies for Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21(2):155-159.
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KEY WORDS: CAVITIES
11. Arano, B., Llorente, G., Garciaparis, M., and Herrero, P. 1995. Species translocation menaces Iberian waterfrogs. Conservation Biology 9(1):196-198.
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KEY WORDS: HETEROZYGOSITY/AMPHIBIANS/REPTILES/HYBRIDS
12. Armstrong, D. P. 1995. Effects of Familiarity on the Outcome of Translocations .2. A Test Using New -Zealand Robins. Biological Conservation 71(3):281-288.
ABSTRACT: Research on birds has shown that familiarity between mates and neighbours leads to lower aggression and higher reproductive success. This study addresses the hypothesis that founder groups used for translocations will do better if made up of individuals that are familiar with one another. The study involved a translocation of a territorial forest bird, the North Island robin Petroica australis longipes to an offshore island. I created both 'familiar groups' (made up of birds that had been adjacent to one another at the source location) and 'unfamiliar groups' (made up of birds that had been widely separated). I released the groups in separate forest patches on the island, and assessed the effects of familiarity on aggression, dispersal, survival and pair bonding. While the study was limited by the sample sizes possible, there was no indication that 'familiar groups' performed differently than 'unfamiliar groups', or that familiarity at the source location affected behavioural interactions following translocation. Post-translocation familiarity was clearly important, for aggression declined according to how long birds had been neighbours at the new location. There was little aggression in general over the first two to five weeks, the period when an effect of prior familiarity on aggression may have been most important. In addition, breakup of 'familiar' groups by dispersal meant that there was limited opportunity for interaction among familiar birds. These results suggest that familiarity within founder groups is unlikely to have strong effects following translocation.
KEY WORDS: Translocation/Re-Introduction/Familiarity/Conservation/New-Zealand/Territoriality/Dispersal/RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS/TERRITORIAL HONEYEATERS/CONSPECIFIC ATTRACTION/NEIGHBORS/BIRDS/STRATEGY
13. Armstrong, D. P. and Craig, J. L. 1995. Effects of Familiarity on the Outcome of Translocations .1. A Test Using Saddlebacks Philesturnus-Carunculatus-Rufusater. Biological Conservation 71(2):133-141.
ABSTRACT: Translocation, the intentional release of a species in a new location, plays an important role in the conservation of endangered species. Consequently, there is a critical need for research on factors affecting the outcome of translocation attempts. This study addresses the hypothesis that founder groups will do better if they are made up of individuals that are familiar with one another. The hypothesis is based on research on birds showing that familiarity between mates and neighbors leads to lower aggression and higher reproductive success. Our test involved a translocation of the North Island saddleback Philesturnus carunculatus rufusater, a New Zealand forest bird restricted to islands free of mammalian predators. We created two founder groups of 18 birds each, one made up of birds from a single small forest patch, and including five known pairs, and the other a mixture of birds from several patches, with no pairs. We released the groups in different parts of an island, and assessed the effects of familiarity on survival, dispersal, pair bonding, and reproduction. The two groups showed similarly high survival, and both dispersed widely. Pair bonds formed more quickly among the familiar birds, even though only one of the five original pairs stayed together after translocation. While pairing among unfamiliar birds tended to be delayed, they achieved a similarly high rate of pairing by the start of the breeding season, and reproductive output was similar for familiar and unfamiliar pairs. We therefore found no evidence that using familiar individuals would improve the outcome of bird translocations. We note that familiarity could be more important with other species and/or in other circumstances. However, we also note the potential costs of using familiar individuals.
KEY WORDS: Translocation/Re-Introduction/Conservation/New-Zealand/Familiarity/RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS/TERRITORIAL HONEYEATERS/NEIGHBORS/CONSERVATION/BIRDS/AGE
14. Ballou, J. D. 1993. Assessing the Risks of Infectious Diseases in Captive Breeding and Reintroduction Programs. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):327-335.
ABSTRACT: Disease risks are an inherent part of captive breeding, translocation, and reintroduction Programs and of research involving contact between researchers and animals. Thus, quantitative assessment of the risks of disease should be an important part of developing conservation strategies. Population viability analysis (PVA) and the use of computer modeling allows conservation planners to examine the potential effects of both the catastrophic and subcatastrophic effects of disease on long-term population viability, measured as probability of extinction, and to explore strategies to mitigate unacceptably high risks. The effects of diseases on the demographic, environmental, and genetic aspects of a population should be examined. Metapopulation management strategies that establish geographically separate populations are likely to provide protection against total population extinction due to single disease epidemics. However, to offset the genetic costs of smaller population size, movement of animals (under quarantined supervision) may be required.
KEY WORDS: Disease Risk/Population Viability Analyses/Metapopulation/Captive Breeding/CALLITRICHID HEPATITIS/POPULATIONS
15. Bath, A. J. 1991. Public Attitudes About Wolf Restoration in Yellowstone-National-Park. Pages 367-376 in Keiter, R. B., Boyce, M. S., eds. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Yale Univ Press, New Haven, CT.
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16. Bath, A. J. Buchanan T. 1989. Attitudes of Interest Groups in Wyoming Toward Wolf Restoration in Yellowstone National Park. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17(4):519-525.
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17. Beck, B. Cooper M. Griffith B. 1993. Infectious Disease Considerations in Reintroduction Programs for Captive Wildlife. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):394-397.
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18. Bell, B. D. 1994. A review of the status of New Zealand Leiopelma species (Anura: Leiopelmatidae), including a summary of demographic studies in Coromandel and on Maud Island. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 21(4):341-349.
ABSTRACT: Six species of Leiopelma frog endemic to New Zealand have been described, but three are extinct. Field surveys have extended the known contemporary ranges of L. archeyi and L. hochstetteri, though sub-fossils reveal that both L. hochstetteri and L. archeyi/hamiltoni were formerly more widespread in New Zealand than they are now. A new North Island population of terrestrial Leiopelma resembling L. archeyi has recently been found. Introduced predators and food competitors, especially Rattus, have probably had a major detrimental impact on Leiopelma. No extant species is immediately at risk of extinction, but L. hamiltoni on Stephens and Maud Islands is very restricted in range and/or numbers. Leiopelma reaches high densities (up to 8 frogs/m(2)) in suitable rock-strewn habitats and can be relatively long-lived (L. archeyi 17+ years, L. hamiltoni 23+ years). Population levels of L. archeyi have fluctuated in a Coromandel study plot sampled approximately annually over 1982-93, but on Maud Island L. hamiltoni numbers were more stable or increased slightly over the years 1983-93. Experimental translocations of L. hamiltoni were made on Maud Island (1984-85) and on Stephens Island (1992). The new colony on Maud Island has bred successfully, and locally bred young have been recruited into the population.
KEY WORDS: Leiopelma/New Zealand/conservation/systematics/demography/translocation
19. Bendel, P. R. and Therres, G. D. 1994. Movements, Site Fidelity and Survival of Delmarva Fox Squirrels Following Translocation. American Midland Naturalist 132(2):227-233.
ABSTRACT: Twenty wild-trapped Delmarva fox squirrels (Sciurus niger cinereus) were translocated from core population areas to a release site within their former range in Maryland. Squirrels were equipped with radio-collars and released during midspring and midautumn and monitored at least 90 days postrelease. Nine known deaths occurred during the study, five within the 1st 35 days. All translocated squirrels remained on the release site. The mean distance moved from the point of release was 589 m (n = 15). The ranges for males (n = 5) and females (n = 10) were similar (P = 0.743). Midspring released squirrels (n = 8) ranged further from the point of release than those translocated in midautumn (n = 7) (P = 0.043). Seasonal differences in movement appeared to be influenced by habitat. Delmarva fox squirrels used certain forest types in greater proportion than available and habitat use differed between seasons.
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20. Bennett, P. M. 1990. Establishing Breeding Programmes for Threatened Species Between Zoos. Journal of Zoology 220:513-515.
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21. Black, J. M. 1995. The Nene Branta sandvicensis recovery initiative: Research against extinction. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S153-S160.
ABSTRACT: Since 1960, about 2150 Hawaiian Geese or Nene Branta sandvicensis were reintroduced in Hawaii to supplement the remaining wild population of about 30 birds, These geese were released mostly in high mountain sanctuaries. These sites became unsuitable during prolonged drought and the few surviving birds were those which had moved away from the release sites. The geese that survived had moved to, or were released near, agricultural pasture land. About 600 Nene are currently living in the wild; numbers are declining on the island of Hawaii, stable on Maul and increasing on Kauai. Management priorities include enhancement of grasslands, predator control and maximizing genetic diversity. To enable the species to recover, management will probably have to be large scale, intensive and prolonged, Further released captive-bred or translocated Nene should have access to enhanced habitats after predators have been controlled.
KEY WORDS: SELECTION/BEHAVIOR/HABITAT
22. Blanchard, B. M. and Knight, R. R. 1995. Biological consequences of relocating grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosystem. Journal of Wildlife Management 59(3):560-565.
ABSTRACT: Relocating grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) from human/bear conflict situations has been a standard management procedure. Using data from Yellowstone National Park, we present components of situations that may affect the outcome of a relocation. Survival rates of transported bears were lower (l(x) = 0.83) (P = 0.001) than those not transported (l(x) = 0.89). Survival was largely affected by whether the bear returned to the capture site (P = 0.029). Return rate was most affected by distance transported (P = 0.012) and age-sex group (P = 0.014). Return rates decreased at distances greater than or equal to 75 km, and subadult females returned least (P = 0.050) often. Because of low survival and high return rates, transporting grizzly bears should be considered a final action to eliminate a conflict situation. However, transporting females must be considered a viable management technique because transports of some individuals have resulted in contributions to the population through successful reproduction.
KEY WORDS: grizzly bear/homing/movements/survival/relocation/transport/Ursus arctos/Wyoming/Yellowstone National Park
23. Bloxam, Q. M. C. and Tonge, S. J. 1995. Amphibians: Suitable candidates for breeding-release programmes. Biodiversity and Conservation 4(6):636-644.
ABSTRACT: Zoological parks are playing an increasingly important role in the management of threatened species through education, the maintenance of captive gene banks and the reintroduction of captive-bred animals into the wild. This paper discusses the suitability of amphibian species for reintroduction. The important features of amphibians for these programmes are highlighted, i.e., their high fecundity to allow rapid build-up of captive populations coupled with few behavioural problems with captive-bred animals, as well as the low cost of maintenance. The potential problems of inbreeding, poor retention of innate behavioural repertoires after multiple generation captive breeding, and the introduction of alien pathogens into wild populations are considered. Release programmes for two species, the Mallorcan midwife toad Alytes muletensis and the Puerto Rican crested toad Peltophryne lemur, are reviewed.
KEY WORDS: Mallorcan midwife toad/Puerto Rican crested toad/reintroduction/conservation/habitat disturbance
24. Bouman, I., Bouman, J., and Boyd, L. 1994. Reintroduction. Pages 255-263 in Boyd, L.//Houpt, K.A., eds. Przewalski'S Horse. SUNY Series in Endangered Species . State Univ New York Press.
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25. Bright, P. W. and Morris, P. A. 1994. Animal translocation for conservation: Performance of dormice in relation to release methods, origin and season. Journal of Applied Ecology 31(4):699-708.
ABSTRACT: 1. We suggest that two important hypotheses underlie the translocation of animals for conservation management, namely that performance is higher for: (i) animals acclimated to a novel site before release (soft releases), compared with those not acclimated (hard releases); and (ii) wild-caught animals compared with captive-bred animals. Despite the increased use of translocations, these hypotheses remain largely untested. 2. Before reintroductions of the dormouse Muscardinus avellanarius, experimental translocations were conducted. These examined the performance of released dormice in relation to season, release methods and animal origin (captive-bred or wild-caught). 3. Early releases (May, June) lost body mass at a significantly higher rate than late releases (August, September). This resulted from seasonal food shortage and could be reversed by supplementary feeding. All released dormice appeared not to locate some important food resources. 4. Soft releases continued to nest at their release point and utilized supplementary food. Hard releases often dispersed and ignored food provided. These differences have profound consequences for reintroductions and hypotheses to explain them are proposed. 5. Wild-caught and captive-bred dormice responded differently to pre-release pens. After release, captive-bred animals travelled significantly less far, in total and from nests, each night. This would have reduced their chances of locating natural food sources and suggests that they are slower to establish in novel habitat. 6. The experiments support the hypotheses underlying translocations and imply that there may also be a common mechanism underlying the behaviour of translocated animals.
KEY WORDS: captive-bred animals/foraging/Muscardinus avellanarius/supplementary food/wildlife conservation management/DORMOUSE MUSCARDINUS-AVELLANARIUS/NESTING-BEHAVIOR/WOODLAND/REINTRODUCTION/MOVEMENTS/SURVIVAL
26. Buerger, T. T. Mortensen S. R. Kendall R. J. Hooper M. J. 1994. Metabolism and Acute Toxicity of Methyl Parathion in Pen-Reared and Wild Northern Bobwhites. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 13(7):1139-1143.
ABSTRACT: Pesticide registration guidelines in the United States accept pen-reared northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) for acute toxicity testing and consider them representative of wild terrestrial birds. It is not known how well the various pen-reared bobwhite strains represent their wild counterpart. The metabolic activation, cholinesterase sensitivity, and toxicity of the organophosphorus insecticide methyl parathion were compared in pen-reared and wild bobwhites. Phosphorothioate insecticides such as methyl parathion are activated to their anticholinesterase oxygen analogues (oxons) by microsomal monooxygenases. Methyl paraoxon 150 values for whole-brain cholinesterase were similar (P > 0.05) for pen-reared and wild bobwhites (60.0-65.1 nM). Activation of methyl parathion to methyl paraoxon by liver microsomes was measured indirectly by inhibition of brain cholinesterase. Microsomal specific activities were similar (P > 0.05) for male and female pen-reared and wild birds (1.15-1.54 nmol min-1 mg protein-1). There were no differences (P > 0.05) in LD50 values between pen-reared (9.84 mg/kg) and wild (10.22 mg/kg) bobwhites. Brain cholinesterase was depressed 70 to 85% in nonsurvivors and 23 to 35% in survivors. Results suggest that pen-reared bobwhites are representative of wild bobwhites. However, comparisons with our previous field research demonstrate that sublethal effects seen in the lab can become lethal under natural conditions. Extrapolations from lab to field must be made cautiously.
KEY WORDS: Acute Toxicity/Cholinesterase/Colinus-Virginianus/Metabolism/Methyl Parathion/BRAIN CHOLINESTERASE ACTIVITY/INSECTICIDES/PESTICIDES/BIRDS/ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE/PREDATION/RECOVERY/ENZYMES
27. Burke, R. L. 1991. Relocations, Repatriations, and Translocations of Amphibians and Reptiles - Taking a Broader View. Herpetologica 47(3):350-357.
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KEY WORDS: CONSERVATION/TORTOISE/POPULATION/EXTINCTION/WILDLIFE/BIOLOGY
28. Cade, T. J. 1992. Hand-Reared Loggerhead Shrikes Breed in Captivity. Condor 94(4):1027-1029.
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KEY WORDS: Loggerhead Shrike/Captive Breeding/Incubation/Reintroduction/Conservation/Shrike
29. Cade, T. J. Jones C. G. 1993. Progress in Restoration of the Mauritius Kestrel. Conservation Biology 7(1):169-175.
ABSTRACT: In the 1970s, the Mauritius Kestrel (Falco punctatus) was the most endangered bird of prey in the world, at one time with only two known pairs surviving in the remnant native forest of the Black River Gorges (ca. 4,000 ha). At the end of the 1991-1992 breeding season, a minimum of 30 nesting pairs and more than 170 individuals were distributed in four separate forested areas, thanks mainly to manipulation of the reproductive potential of the wild pairs, to captive propagation, and to reintroduction (restocking). Since 1984, 139 young have been reared from 618 eggs laid by captive kestrels, and 147 from 265 wild eggs incubated and hatched in the laboratory, 235 young kestrels have been released on Mauritius by hacking and fostering Adjustments in feeding and nesting habits of kestrels backed and released outside the Black River Gorges in areas dominated by exotic vegetation and agriculture have allowed these kestrels to survive and reproduce in an array of previously unused habitats. Now that the kestrels have been released from dependence on the remnant and dying native forest, a viable population of mom than 100 nesting pairs should be achievable in a few more years.
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30. Carpenter, J. W. Gabel R. R. Goodwin J. G. 1991. Captive Breeding and Reintroduction of the Endangered Masked Bobwhite. Zoo Biology 10(6):439-449.
ABSTRACT: Efforts to restore the endangered masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi) to its former range have required 1) habitat acquisition, restoration, and preservation; 2) captive propagation; and 3) reintroduction of captive-bred stock. In its role to recover the masked bobwhite, the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) has refined captive breeding techniques; provided captive-produced stock for release; conducted field research on the distribution, limiting factors, and habitat characteristics of this species; and developed release methods. Techniques for the husbandry and captive management, breeding, artificial incubation and hatching of eggs, and rearing of young of the masked bobwhite have been developed. Successful reintroduction techniques for the masked bobwhite have included prerelease conditioning and/or cross-fostering of captive-reared masked bobwhite chicks to a wild-caught, related, vasectomized bobwhite species and their release to the wild as family units. In addition, the establishment by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in 1985 has further enhanced the potential for establishing a self-sustaining population of the masked bobwhite in the U.S. Through continued releases and active management of habitat, therefore, it is believed that the masked bobwhite can become permanently established at the refuge to ensure its continued survival in the wild.
KEY WORDS: Colinus-Virginianus-Ridgwayi/Propagation/Release/Artificial Incubation
31. Castle, M. D. Christensen B. M. 1990. Hematozoa of Wild Turkeys from the Midwestern United-States - Translocation of Wild Turkeys and Its Potential Role in the Introduction of Plasmodium-Kempi. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26(2):180-185.
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32. Chiszar, D. Murphy J. B. Smith H. M. 1993. In Search of Zoo-Academic Collaborations - A Research Agenda for the 1990's. Herpetologica 49(4):488-500.
ABSTRACT: Because zoos have added Species Survival Plans and related conservation efforts to their traditional programs, new goals have emerged along with new interests in theoretical problems. We see the decade of the 1990's as a time that zoo university collaborations must make significant progress in dealing with empirical and theoretical issues of mutual interest. It is not always obvious to both groups, however, that mutual interest exists. Consequently, we have described numerous problems that have both theoretical and applied components and that should be attractive to zoo and university herpetologists. Also, we have speculated about the combination of concepts and subdisciplines that is most likely to be successful in pursuing the husbandry, propagation, and conservation problems that must be solved in the near future. It is our hope that the zoo-university mutualisms that already exist within herpetology will grow, not only in numbers, but also in the contributions that they make to the science of herpetology and to the management of herps in captivity as well as in nature.
KEY WORDS: Amphibians/Reptiles/Zoos/Captivity/Propagation Conservation/Collaborative Research/LEARNED HELPLESSNESS/ANOLIS-CAROLINENSIS/SOCIAL-STATUS/REPTILES/TRANSLOCATION/AMPHIBIANS/LIZARD/SALAMANDERS/BEHAVIOR/STRATEGY
33. Clark, T. W. Westrum R. 1989. High-Performance Teams in Wildlife Conservation - A Species Reintroduction and Recovery Example. Environmental Management 13(6):663-670.
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34. Compton, B. B., Zager, P., and Servheen, G. 1995. Survival and mortality of translocated woodland caribou. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(3):490-496.
ABSTRACT: We monitored survival of 60 woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus) translocated from British Columbia to the Selkirk Mountains of northern Idaho between March 1987 and February 1992. This translocation was to assist in recovery of the endangered Selkirk population. For all translocated caribou combined, estimated annual survival rates ranged from 0.65-0.94 and were consistent with declining established populations. No differences (P > 0.10) in survival were found between male and female caribou or between mountain and northern ecotypes. Causes of death included unknown (n = 14), predation (n = 7), other (n = 4), and human-caused (n = 2), with summer accounting for the greatest proportion (53%). Emigration of 7 mountain ecotype animals also was a loss to the population. Mountain lions (Felis concolor) caused most confirmed predator kills. Seasonal pattern of mortality was consistent with established populations where predation was identified as a significant factor.
KEY WORDS: caribou/mortality/Rangifer tarandus/survival/translocation/WHITE-TAILED DEER/NORTH-AMERICA/MARROW FAT/MOVEMENTS/DYNAMICS/ALBERTA
35. Cooke, A. S. and Oldham, R. S. 1995. Establishment of Populations of the Common Frog, Rana-Temporaria, and Common Toad, Bufo-Bufo, in a Newly Created Reserve Following Translocation. Herpetological Journal 5(1):173-180.
ABSTRACT: The establishment of large populations of common frogs Rana temporaria and common toads Bufo bufo was monitored for six years in a newly-created reserve, following stocking with spawn of both species and with toads rescued from a site to be destroyed. Frog spawn output reached a peak three years after the initial introduction. There was high mortality and/or emigration (64% loss) during the first year following translocation of over 5,000 adult male toads. Thereafter male mortality decreased and/or site fidelity increased: 39% loss year 2 to 3, 42% loss year 3 to 4. Comparable data were not available for the 795 females translocated, but there is no reason to believe their mortality was lower. Transfer of spawn is probably more effective as a means of establishing a new population of toads than transfer of adults. Counts of male toads peaked after three years, but delayed sexual maturity of females meant that counts of pairs and estimates of spawn output continued to increase for about six years. Age determination in a sample of 43 male toads showed that length was significantly related to age, but there were some notably disparate rates of growth. A sample of 16 females showed no correlation between age and length. The greatest recorded losses of naturally-laid spawn of both species (up to 16% in one year for the frog and 39% for the toad) were due to desiccation, presumed collection by people and fungal infestation.
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36. Cooke, A. S. and Oldham, R. S. 1995. Establishment of populations of the common frog, Rana temporaria, and common toad, Bufo bufo, in a newly created reserve following translocation (vol 5, pg 173, 1995) (Correction). Herpetological Journal 5(2):242.
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37. Cooper, M. E. 1993. Legal Implications for the Management of Infectious Disease in Captive Breeding and Reintroduction Programs. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):296-303.
ABSTRACT: Programs for the captive breeding, introduction, reintroduction, or translocation of an animal can involve a chain of events including capture, captivity, propagation, movement, veterinary diagnosis and treatment, and scientific procedures. All such activities may be subject to legislation that may be applied at international, national, regional, or local levels. It can relate inter alia to conservation, animal health, welfare and research, administration, and to human safety. The diversity of the relevant law necessitates the planning and management of programs to ensure compliance with regulatory requirements in the course of achieving scientific objectives.
KEY WORDS: Legislation/Wildlife/Permit/Import/Welfare/Safety
38. Cope, W. G. and Waller, D. L. 1995. Evaluation of freshwater mussel relocation as a conservation and management strategy. Regulated Rivers - Research & Management 11(2):147-155.
ABSTRACT: The relocation of unionacean mussels is commonly used as a conservation and management tool in large rivers and streams. Relocation has been used to recolonize areas where mussel populations have been eliminated by prior pollution events, to remove mussels from construction zones and to re-establish populations of endangered species. More recently, relocation has been used to protect native freshwater mussels from colonization by the exotic zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. We conducted a literature review of mussel relocations and evaluated their relative success as a conservation and management strategy. We found that 43% of all relocations were conducted because of construction projects that were forced to comply with the Endangered Species Act 1973 and that only 16% were monitored for five or more consecutive years. Most (43%) relocation projects were conducted from July to September, presumably a period when reproductive stress is relatively low for most species and the metabolic rate is sufficient for reburrowing in the substrate. The mortality of relocated mussels was unreported in 27% of projects; reported mortality varied widely among projects and species and was difficult to assess. The mean mortality of relocated mussels was 49% based on an average recovery rate of 43%. There is little guidance on the methods for relocation or for monitoring the subsequent long-term status of relocated mussels. Based on this evaluation, research is needed to develop criteria for selecting a suitable relocation site and to establish appropriate methods and guidelines for conducting relocation projects.
KEY WORDS: bivalves/conservation/management/mussels/relocation/river/translocation/transplant/unionidae
39. Csermely, D. and Corona, C. V. 1994. Behavior and Activity of Rehabilitated Buzzards (Buteo buteo) Released in Northern Italy. Journal of Raptor Research 28(2):100-107.
ABSTRACT: The behavior and habitat hunting of 16 rehabilitated common buzzards (Buteo buteo) released in northern Italy were analyzed. The buzzards were released individually in different seasons, and their activity was recorded continuously for at least the first 3 d after release and intermittently thereafter until they dispersed from the release site. The birds remained in the surrounding area for more than 100 d, showing a progressive acclimation to the new environment. The released buzzards interacted frequently with wild territorial conspecifics and were attacked by several species of corvids, especially the hooded crow (Corvus corone). Nevertheless, such interactions were not the direct cause of dispersal. Some birds defended a territory adjacent to or inside that of a wild buzzard. Prey capture was almost normal, although certainly underestimated. Small mammals and reptiles were most often caught. Although the area chosen for this study had high human population, this was not a major source of interference with the releases. Thus, the buzzards appeared to be able to cope with their new environment being minimally influenced by having been in captivity.
KEY WORDS: Hawks/Buteo-Buteo/Behavior/Captivity/Dispersal/Rehabilitation/Behavioral Ecology/COMMON
40. Davidson, W. R. Appel M. J. Doster G. L. Baker O. E. Brown J. F. 1992. Diseases and Parasites of Red Foxes, Gray Foxes, and Coyotes from Commercial Sources Selling to Fox-Chasing Enclosures. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 28(4):581-589.
ABSTRACT: Fifty-six red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 18 gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and 13 coyotes (Canis latrans) obtained by the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department during an investigation of suspected illegal wildlife translocation were examined for diseases and parasites. Red foxes and coyotes were confiscated from an animal dealer based in Ohio (USA), and gray foxes were purchased from an animal dealer in Indiana (USA). Emphasis was placed on detection of pathogens representing potential health risks to native wildlife, domestic animals, or humans. All animals were negative for rabies; however, 15 gray foxes were incubating canine distemper at necropsy. Serologic tests disclosed antibodies to canine parvovirus, canine distemper virus, canine adenovirus, canine coronavirus, canine herpesvirus, and canine parainfluenza virus in one or more host species. Twenty-three species of parasites (two protozoans, three trematodes, four cestodes, eleven nematodes, and three arthropods) were found, including species with substantial pathogenic capabilities. Echinococcus multilocularis, a recognized human pathogen not enzootic in the southeastern United States, was found in red foxes. Based on this information, we conclude that the increasingly common practice of wild canid translocation for stocking fox-chasing enclosures poses potential health risks to indigenous wildlife, domestic animals, and humans and, therefore, is biologically hazardous.
KEY WORDS: Infectious Diseases/Parasitism/Echinococcus-Multilocularis/Red Fox/Vulpes-Vulpes/Gray Fox/Urocyon-Cinereoargenteus/Coyotes/Canis-Latrans/Host Translocation/ECHINOCOCCUS-MULTILOCULARIS/TRANSLOCATED RACCOONS/UNITED-STATES/RABIES/INFECTION
41. Dodd, C. K. Seigel R. A. 1991. Relocation, Repatriation, and Translocation of Amphibians and Reptiles - Are They Conservation Strategies That Work. Herpetologica 47(3):336-350.
ABSTRACT: Conservation strategies involving relocations, repatriations, and translocations (RRT) have been carried out, are underway, or are advocated for a number of endangered and threatened amphibians and reptiles. However, recent reviews of RRT projects involving birds and mammals suggest that the success rate is low and that the factors that lead to endangerment operate to impede effective RRT results. In this paper, we review available information on RRT projects involving amphibians and reptiles, examine the motives for advocating RRT strategies, and recommend biological and management criteria that should be considered prior to undertaking RRT projects. Most RRT projects involving amphibians and reptiles have not demonstrated success as conservation techniques and should not be advocated as if they are acceptable management and mitigation practices. We urge caution in accepting claims of success and urge colleagues to publish detailed methods and results of past and ongoing RRT projects.
KEY WORDS: Amphibians/Reptiles/Repatriation/Relocation/Translocation/Conservation/Management/SEX-RATIO/SPECIES CONSERVATION/POPULATION SIZES/GOPHER TORTOISE/ECOLOGY/TURTLES/SCIENCE
42. Dowling, T. E., Minckley, W. L., Marsh, P. C., and Goldstein, E. S. 1996. Mitochondrial DNA variability in the endangered razorback sucker (Xyrauchen texanus): Analysis of hatchery stocks and implications for captive propagation. Conservation Biology 10(1):120-127.
ABSTRACT: The razorback sucker (Xyrauchen texanus) is a large, long-lived catostomid fish endemic to the Colorado River drainage of western North America, endangered because of recruitment failure. Efforts to preserve the species have emphasized artificial propagation and reintroduction. Given the importance of maintaining genetic diversity in such a program we examined mitochondrial DNA diversity in a source population (Lake Mohave, Arizona-Nevada) and three hatchery-produced year classes (1987, 1989, 1990). The source contained considerable variation indicated by high haplotype diversity ((h) over cap = 0.97) and a large number of unique haplotypes (17 in 25 individuals). Diversity also was high in the 1987 ((h) over cap = 0.89, 6 haplotypes in 10 individuals) and 1989 hatchery-produced year classes ((h) over cap = 0.91, 7 in 11) but significantly, lower in the 1990 year class ((h) over cap = 0.71, 4 in 10). Low diversity in the last class was likely because of differences among females in fecundity, viability of progeny, or both. Because natural populations have collapsed throughout the species' range, toe must identify methods that preserve the most diversity. We examined three potential alternatives: standard hatchery propagation natural spawning in predator-free environments, and protective custody of larvae collected from the lake with reintroduction after-growth to a size likely to survive. The last is the preferred alternative and should be pursued as the most cost-effective option for preserving genetic diversity in the razorback sucker.
KEY WORDS: LOWER COLORADO RIVER/ARIZONA-CALIFORNIA/INHERITANCE/EVOLUTION/SYSTEMATICS/DROSOPHILA/GENETICS/BIOLOGY
43. Duvall, A. C. Schoonveld G. S. 1988. Colorado Moose - Reintroduction and Management. Alces 24: 188-194 .
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44. Ebenhard, T. 1995. Conservation breeding as a tool for saving animal species from extinction. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10(11):438-443.
ABSTRACT: For nearly 3000 taxa of birds and mammals, conservation breeding may be the only possible way to avoid extinction. Today, less than 100 of these taxa have self-sustaining captive populations, and even fewer have been selected for reintroduction programmes. However, recent developments in our theoretical understanding of conservation breeding, as well as in its practical application, and global organization, raise hopes for the future.
KEY WORDS: CAPTIVE DROSOPHILA POPULATIONS/MODELING PROBLEMS/FOUNDER REPRESENTATION/GENETICS/REINTRODUCTION/MANAGEMENT/ADAPTATION/SIZE
45. Ellis, W. A. H. White N. A. Kunst N. D. Carrick F. N. 1990. Response of Koalas (Phascolarctos-Cinereus) to Re-Introduction to the Wild After Rehabilitation. Australian Wildlife Research 17(4):421-426.
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KEY WORDS: AUSTRALIA
46. Ellsworth, D. L., Honeycutt, R. L., Silvy, N. J., Smith, M. H., Bickham, J. W., and Klimstra, W. D. 1994. White-Tailed Deer Restoration to the Southeastern United-States - Evaluating Genetic Variation. Journal of Wildlife Management 58(4):686-697.
ABSTRACT: Protective legislation and restocking were used to restore white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to the southeastern United States (U.S.) following declines that occurred during the nineteenth century. Although stocking and protection of native herds are often key components of deer management programs, the degree to which these strategies contributed to recovery of southeastern white-tailed deer has not been determined. We used mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction-site variation and allozyme diversity to characterize gene flow patterns and genetic differentiation among white-tailed deer populations in the southeastern U.S. and evaluated the effectiveness of management programs for restoring white-tailed deer to the region. Compared with white-tailed deer in northern areas of North America, deer in the southeastern U.S. exhibited a high level of mtDNA subdivision (G(ST) = 0.621) that may be attributable to site philopatry of females. Relative to mtDNA, the extent of allozyme differentiation (F(ST) = 0.153) indicated a bias in dispersal (gene flow) toward males (3:1), suggesting that managers should regulate the degree to which males are preferentially harvested to preserve the exchange of genetic information among populations. Geographic patterns of genetic variation in white-tailed deer were congruent with those in unrelated taxa, implicating the common influence of historical biogeographic events in shaping contemporary genetic structure. Similarities in geographic variation between white-tailed deer and other vertebrates inhabiting this region indicated that deer populations in the southeastern U.S. are descended from native herds and that relocated deer have contributed insignificantly to the genetic composition of extant populations.
KEY WORDS: Allozymes/Genetics/Hunting/Management/Mitochondrial DNA/Odocoileus-Virginianus/Restocking/Southeastern United-States/White-Tailed Deer/MITOCHONDRIAL-DNA/RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES/SPATIAL HETEROGENEITY/NATURAL-POPULATIONS/MULE DEER/DIFFERENTIATION/VARIABILITY/DISPERSAL
47. Elsey, R. M. Joanen T. Mcnease L. Kinler N. 1992. Growth Rates and Body Condition Factors of Alligator mississippiensis in Coastal Louisiana Wetlands - A Comparison of Wild and Farm-Released Juveniles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A - Comparative Physiology 103(4):667-672.
ABSTRACT: 1. Growth rates and body condition factors for native wild and captive-raised juvenile alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) that had been released to the wild were studied using tag-recapture methods for 274 alligators over a 4-year period. Alligators were grouped by sex, size class, source (farm-released vs native wild) and as to whether they had overwintered or not. 2. In most groups, the farm-released alligators grew significantly better than wild alligators matched for sex and size; in the remaining groups the post-release alligators grew as well as their counterparts, though not better. 3. Overwintering tended to slow growth rates in both groups, but farm-released alligators still demonstrated superior growth over native wild alligators even after overwintering. 4. Males tended to grow faster than females, though this trend was not always significantly greater. In no matched group did females grow faster than males. 5. Growth rates diminished with increasing size in native wild alligators (smaller alligators grew faster), but growth rates of farm-released alligators remained accelerated even at the larger size classes. 6. Growth curves were constructed using known recapture data with three growth models (von Bertlanffy, Gompertz and logistic); the calculated maximum attainable length and growth parameters were significantly larger (P < 0.01) for farm-released alligators than wild using all three models. 7. Body condition factors were not different in captive-raised post-released alligators than native wild alligators.
KEY WORDS: NORTHERN AUSTRALIA/AMPHIBIANS/REPTILES/TRANSLOCATION
48. Fa, J. E. 1994. Herbivore Intake Habitat Productivity Correlations Can Help Ascertain Re-Introduction Potential for the Barbary Macaque. Biodiversity and Conservation 3(4):309-317.
ABSTRACT: Re-introductions are increasingly used conservation tools. Often, criteria for re-introducing species are based on policies or politics and little attention paid, albeit theoretical, to understanding what ecological possibilities habitats may have in sustaining introduced animals. Assessing potential carrying capacities is complex but easier for grazers, since biomass of these herbivores is empirically correlated with habitat primary productivity. The case is made here that the Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus, a vulnerable North African primate with a large surplus captive stock, can be viewed as a grazer. Because of this attribute, and unlike congenerics, it is possible to estimate potential densities in extant habitats in a fashion similar to predicting stocking levels for domestic herbivores. Thus, from values of consumable primary productivity for domestic stock in Mediterranean countries and the monkey's energy requirements, attainable macaque populations in studied habitats could be much higher than actual. Though these numbers may be unreachable in nature, this study shows that present macaque populations could increase after restorative management of habitats in which re-stocking with captive-born animals may play a part. However, since only 10% of potential monkey habitat in Morocco and Algeria is occupied by the species, finding areas for releasing captive-born macaques is more advisable.
KEY WORDS: Barbary Macaques/Feeding Ecology/Primary Productivity/Re-Introduction Potential
49. Foin, T. C. Brenchleyjackson J. L. 1991. Simulation Model Evaluation of Potential Recovery of Endangered Light-Footed Clapper Rail Populations. Biological Conservation 58(2):123-148.
ABSTRACT: Conservation of the endangered light-footed clapper rail Rallus longirostris levipes is a major objective in the remaining areas of Southern California salt marsh. We used simulation modeling to determine the potential of different types of estuaries and different management strategies for increasing the size of the rail population. Analyses of existing data show that the size of breeding populations of rails is closely associated with above-ground biomass of Pacific cordgrass Spartina foliosa. A model of cordgrass was constructed to analyze the effects of salinity and soil moisture, and of the impact of various management actions, on the potential for biomass production. The model shows that keeping the salt marsh open to the sea is critically important, but that enhancing the fresh water supplied to the marsh has mixed results. The simulation model was used in conjunction with field estimates of rail density to estimate the potential for rail population recovery. These estimates show that full implementation of the recovery plan for rails is only possible if all remaining wetland area is restored to high-quality rail habitat. Our results suggest that a greater benefit to rails may result from concentrating on habitat improvement of those estuaries that have the greatest potential for Spartina production rather than the dispersion of expenditures upon all existing wetlands, many of which may have limited potential for rail population expansion.
KEY WORDS: SALICORNIA-VIRGINICA L/SPARTINA-FOLIOSA TRIN/SAN-FRANCISCO BAY/SALT MARSHES/MOVEMENTS/PATTERNS/SALINITY/ECOTONE
50. Fox, J. L. Nurbu C. Chundawat R. S. 1991. Tibetan Argali (Ovis-Ammon-Hodgsoni) Establish a New Population. Mammalia 55(3):448-452.
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51. Franklin, J. Steadman D. W. 1991. The Potential for Conservation of Polynesian Birds Through Habitat Mapping and Species Translocation. Conservation Biology 5(4):506-521.
ABSTRACT: During the past several millennia, hundreds if not thousands of Polynesian land bird populations have been reduced or eliminated by human activities-direct predation, habitat alteration, and introduction of predators and pathogens. Many of the surviving populations and species of Polynesian land birds, particularly pigeons, doves, parrots, kingfishers, and passerines, are likely to become extinct within the next few decades unless we intervene to save them. One strategy is to translocate species onto previously occupied islands, if the habitat is suitable and current human activities are compatible. In this study we evaluate a procedure for analyzing terrestrial habitats in a geographical information system (GIS) using aerial photographs, satellite imagery, topographic maps, and thematic maps. In the relatively simple island ecosystems of Atiu and Mitiaro (southern Cook Islands), mapping land cover and evaluating habitat suitability of land birds is straightforward; measures of the shape and spatial relationships of land cover patches are of limited value. Although the rate of land cover disturbance by people has not increased in recent times, even small disturbances can eliminate a significant proportion of preferred habitat for land birds. We suggest that, whenever possible, translocation efforts should focus on islands uninhabited by humans. The potential for successful translocation in the Cook Islands is limited to a few species. In Tonga, where more species of birds have been extirpated and where there are more uninhabited islands, the potential to reestablish viable land bird populations is much greater.
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52. Garson, P. J. Young L. Kaul R. 1992. Ecology and Conservation of the Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii - Studies in the Wild and the Progress of a Reintroduction Project. Biological Conservation 59(1):25-35.
ABSTRACT: The cheer pheasant Catreus wallichii is an endangered species frequenting open habitats in the Himalayan foothills of Pakistan, India and Nepal. Part of this paper describes how early successional habitats used by cheer at one intensively studied site are maintained by a traditional form of scrub clearance and single-season crop growing on a long rotation, together with seasonal grazing. A review of the habitat characteristics and land-use patterns at a series of other present-day cheer sites reveals that, with the exception of a few small refuges, all component habitats are heavily disturbed. The history of a continuing reintroduction attempt for cheer in the Margalla Hills National Park in Pakistan is then reviewed in the light of these findings. We conclude that habitat management involving the rotational burning of a dense successional scrub is necessary if the released population is to have any prospects of becoming self-sustaining. A similar type of management needs to be maintained at sites still holding wild cheer in India and Nepal.
KEY WORDS: SURVIVAL
53. Gordon, D. R. 1994. Translocation of Species into Conservation Areas - A Key for Natural Resource Managers. Natural Areas Journal 14(1):31-37.
ABSTRACT: Few guidelines address the considerations and criteria necessary for judging the appropriateness of translocating species onto designated conservation areas. This paper presents a dichotomous key that will assist natural resource decision-makers in assessing the biological and genetic needs and impacts of introducing, reintroducing, or augmenting species. I argue that each translocation decision should be well documented prior to action in a format that includes current and proposed site management information, consideration of the factors addressed in the key, and monitoring of translocated individuals or populations. Although translocation should not be viewed as an alternative to in situ conservation of species, this tactic may be necessary for conservation of species or processes in natural areas.
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54. Griffith, B. Scott J. M. Carpenter J. W. Reed C. 1993. Animal Translocations and Potential Disease Transmission. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):231-236.
ABSTRACT: A survey of terrestrial vertebrate translocations, 1973-1986, from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the USA was analyzed to determine the geographical distribution and relative frequency of translocation methods that had disease transmission implications. Contemporary translocations likely exceed 700 per year. More than 50% of surveyed agencies translocated some species each year. On average, 26% of translocations released captive-reared animals, 29% of releases were to areas on the periphery or outside of historic species ranges, only 32% were soft releases that provided opportunity for postrelease monitoring, and, in 24% of translocations, there was no professional examination of animals for parasites, disease, or injury prior to release. There were differences among countries and among regions in the USA in these characteristics of translocations but no differences among countries or regions in translocation success. Adequate assessment of the effect of disease on translocation success will require multivariate analyses. These analyses will require more complete documentation of disease-related properties of translocations than is currently available.
KEY WORDS: Translocation/Reintroduction/Disease/Threatened Species/Endangered Species/Geography
55. Haig, S. M. Ballou J. D. Derrickson S. R. 1990. Management Options for Preserving Genetic Diversity - Reintroduction of Guam Rails to the Wild. Conservation Biology 4(3):290-300.
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56. Hamann, O. 1993. On Vegetation Recovery, Goats and Giant Tortoises on Pinta Island, Galapagos, Ecuador. Biodiversity and Conservation 2(2):138-151.
ABSTRACT: Data on vegetational changes on Pinta Island. Galapagos, collected during the period 1970-1988, show that feral goats have had a destructive impact on the vegetation. Stands of Scalesia baurii ssp. hopkinsii (Asteraceae) and Opuntia galapageia var. galapageia (Cactaceae) were close to a complete collapse, while stands of Bursera graveolens (Burseraceae) apparently were able to persist for a longer time. After the elimination of large numbers of goats, Scalesia, Opuntia and Bursera were recovering rapidly, but the patterns of regeneration differed in accordance with differences in longevity, growth and seedling establishment. It is suggested that the absence of herbivores (the Pinta subspecies of giant tortoise is practically extinct, and feral goats were finally eradicated in 1990) in the long term may lead to decreased diversity in the vegetation of Pinta. As a management experiment aimed at conserving the biological diversity of Pinta, it is proposed to reintroduce giant tortoises to the island, preceded and accompanied by a careful long-term monitoring of vegetational changes.
KEY WORDS: Galapagos/Pinta Island/Regeneration of Woody Plants/Feral Goats/Giant Tortoises/Ecological Diversity
57. Hawkins, L. K. Cranford J. A. 1992. Long-Term Effects of Intraspecific and Interspecific Cross-Fostering on 2 Species of Peromyscus. Journal of Mammalogy 73(4):802-807.
ABSTRACT: Reproduction, parental behavior, offspring survivorship, physical development, and growth were studied in Peromyscus that had been reared by foster parents of the same or a closely related species. Neither type of cross-fostering had any effect in P. leucopus. Interspecifically cross-fostered P. maniculatus exhibited severely depressed reproductive success, while intraspecific cross-fostering had little effect. Parental behavior was apparently unaffected by cross-fostering in both species. Sex-related differences in response to interspecific cross-fostering occurred in both species, with males more negatively affected than females.
KEY WORDS: Peromyscus/Parental Behavior/Reproduction/Survivorship
58. Hearne, J. W. Swart J. 1991. Optimal Translocation Strategies for Saving the Black Rhino. Ecological Modelling 59(3-4):279-292.
ABSTRACT: Over the past 30 years the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) populations in Africa have dwindled dramatically. To enhance the survival prospects of the species, a national conservation strategy has been developed in South Africa. Its main goal is to formulate and implement policies to increase the southern African rhino population as rapidly as possible. This involves translocating animals from areas where the population is approaching the ecological carrying capacity and establishing new viable populations in other suitable reserves. A non-linear differential equation model for a population of black rhino was developed. The model is used with a combination of analytical and numerical techniques to investigate a number of issues relating to the translocation of rhino from well-stocked, high-density areas to low-density areas with small herds or no herds. Firstly, the model is used to determine the maximum sustainable yield from the well-stocked reserves. The model is then applied to a newly established population to determine optimal import policies. Finally, the model is extended to include both an established exporting population and a new understocked importing population. Simulations are performed to give an indication of the number and age of animals which should be translocated to maximise the growth rate of the total rhino population in southern Africa.
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59. Hedrick, P. W. 1995. Gene flow and genetic restoration: The Florida panther as a case study. Conservation Biolog 9(5):996-1007.
ABSTRACT: Populations of some endangered species have become so small that they have lost genetic variation and appear to have become fixed for deleterious genetic variants. To avoid extinction from this genetic deterioration individuals from related subspecies or populations may have to be introduced for genetic restoration i.e., elimination of deleterious variants and recovery to a normal level of genetic variation. I construct a general population genetics framework from which to evaluate the potential for genetic restoration, and I discuss its specific application to the Florida panther. The translocation of Texas cougars into the free-ranging Florida panther population has been recommended to genetically restore the Florida panther a subspecies of Felis concolor that appears to have both a low level of genetic variation and low fitness. Specific recommendations recently given by a scientific panel are to introduce enough animals so that there is approximately 20% gene pow in the first generation of translocation and approximately 2-4% in the generations thereafter. I evaluated these recommendations in a theoretical population genetics framework and found that they should result in the removal of most detrimental genetic variation and an increase in the standing genetic variation without a high probability of loss of any adaptive Florida panther alleles. Unless the population of the free-ranging Florida panthers is very small, the planned translocation should result in genetic restoration of the Florida panther.
KEY WORDS: DROSOPHILA POPULATIONS/CANINE CRYPTORCHIDISM/CONSERVATION GENETICS/FITNESS
60. Heggberget, T. M. 1991. Establishment of Breeding Populations and Population Development in the Canada Goose Branta-Canadensis in Norway. Ardea 79(2):364-370.
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61. Hobson, D. P. Proulx G. Dew B. L. 1989. Initial Post-Release Behavior of Marten, Martes-Americana, Introduced in Cypress-Hills-Provincial-Park, Saskatchewan. Canadian Field-Naturalist 103(3):398-400.
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62. Holler, N. R. Mason D. W. Dawson R. M. Simons T. Wooten M. C. 1989. Reestablishment of the Perdido Key Beach Mouse (Peromyscus-Polionotus-Trissyllepsis) on Gulf Islands National Seashore. Conservation Biology 3(4):397-404.
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63. Holroyd, G. L. Banasch U. 1990. The Reintroduction of the Peregrine Falcon, Falco-Peregrinus-Anatum, into Southern Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 104(2):203-208.
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64. Horwich, R. H. 1989. Use of Surrogate Parental Models and Age Periods in a Successful Release of Hand-Reared Sandhill Cranes. Zoo Biology 8(4):379-390.
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65. Hutchins, M., Sheppard, C., Lyles, A. M., and Casadei, G. 1995. Behavioral considerations in the captive management, propagation, and reintroduction of endangered birds. Pages 263-289 in Gibbons, E.F.//Durrant, B.S.//Demarest, J., eds., Conservation of Endangered Species in Captivity. SUNY Series in Endangered Species, State Univ New York Press, Albany.
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66. Jackson, L. L. 1992. The Role of Ecological Restoration in Conservation Biology. Pages 433-451 in Fiedler, P. L., Jain, S. K., eds. Conservation Biology : the Theory and Practice of Nature Conservation, Preservation and Management. Routledge Chapman & Hall Inc, New York.
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67. Jackson, L. L., Lopoukhine, N., and Hillyard, D. 1995. Ecological restoration: A definition and comments - Commentary. Restoration Ecology 3(2):71-75.
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68. Jacobson, E. R. 1993. Implications of Infectious Diseases for Captive Propagation and Introduction Programs of Threatened Endangered Reptiles. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):245-255.
ABSTRACT: Health and disease are becoming extremely relevant issues for the conservation biology of members of all major groups of vertebrates. The importance of disease in captive propagation, relocation, repatriation, and translocation (RRT) programs is just being appreciated. All of us experience multiple diseases in our lifetimes. Reptiles are not different. They are susceptible to the range of infectious agents known to occur in other vertebrates. The causes of disease in captive reptiles are better understood than those in their wild counterparts. However, several important diseases have recently been documented in wild chelonians. One of these, upper respiratory tract disease in the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) is thought to have been introduced into populations of tortoises in the Mojave Desert in the southwestern USA by release of ill captive desert tortoises. A similar situation appears to exist for certain populations of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) in Florida, USA. Although conservation strategies such as RRT programs have been implemented for a number of threatened/endangered reptiles, results indicate that the success rate is rather low. Because of this low success rate and the recent awareness of the possible introduction of exotic pathogens acquired in captivity, release programs should be scrutinized more closely.
KEY WORDS: Infectious Disease/Propagation/Release/Reptiles/HERPESVIRUS-LIKE INFECTION/DESERT TORTOISES/TESTUDO-GRAECA/CRYPTOSPORIDIUM/COLLECTION/TURTLES/SNAKES/VIRUS/WILD
69. Jones, C. G., Heck, W., Lewis, R. E., Mungroo, Y., Slade, G., and Cade, T. 1995. The restoration of the Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus population. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S173-S180.
ABSTRACT: By 1974, the Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus had declined to only four known wild birds, including one breeding pair, as a result of habitat loss and pesticide contamination. A conservation project begun in 1973 has used many management techniques including captive breeding, supplemental feeding of wild birds, provision of nestboxes, multiple clutching, egg pulling, artificial incubation, hand rearing and release of captive-bred and captive-reared birds by hacking, fostering and predator control. A total of 331 kestrels were released in the 10 years up to the end of the 1993-1994 breeding season; one-third of these were captive bred, the rest were derived from eggs harvested from the wild. About 257 (78%) released birds survived to independence and 61% of independent juveniles survived their first winter. Although at least 71% of ringed birds attempted to breed in their first year, only 38% of the nests of first-year females successfully fledged young, averaging 1.7 per successful nest. Older females fledged young from 64% of nests, fledging an average of 2.0 per successful nest. The breeding success of hacked birds was similar to that of parent-raised kestrels, though the clutches of hacked birds tended to be larger. Annual replacement of birds holding territories averaged 17% for both sexes. By the 1993-1994 season, an estimated 56-68 pairs had established territories in the wild with a postbreeding population, including floating birds and independent young, of 222-286, Most of the kestrels were in three sub-populations, two of which were derived entirely from released birds, Mauritius Kestrels are relatively sedentary; 89% of ringed birds found nesting were less than 5 km from their release or fledging site. Since the pesticides responsible for their decline are no longer used, the number of Mauritius Kestrels should continue to rise through natural recruitment. The distribution of suitable habitat suggests that an eventual population of 500-600 kestrels on Mauritius is possible. Due to its outstanding success, the release programme for the Mauritius Kestrel ended after the 1993-1994 breeding season,
KEY WORDS: CAPTIVE AMERICAN KESTRELS
70. Jones, J. M. Witham J. H. 1990. Post-Translocation Survival and Movements of Metropolitan White-Tailed Deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18(4):434-441.
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71. Karesh, W. B. 1993. Cost Evaluation of Infectious Disease Monitoring and Screening Programs for Wildlife Translocation and Reintroduction. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):291-295.
ABSTRACT: Little information is available on the actual costs incurred in identifying and monitoring the infectious disease status of wildlife intended for translocation and reintroduction. Accurate cost estimates of translocation and reintroduction programs are essential to make decisions concerning planning and implementation processes. Postproject analysis of costs and effectiveness will provide the objective data needed by organizations when planning similar projects or determining future funding requirements. A simple, systematic, and comprehensive cost accounting method for projects is presented.
KEY WORDS: Reintroduction/Translocation/Disease/Veterinary/Cost/Economics
72. Kock, M. D. Dutoit R. Kock N. Morton D. Foggin C. Paul B. 1990. Effects of Capture and Translocation on Biological Parameters in Free-Ranging Black Rhinoceroses (Diceros-Bicornis) in Zimbabwe. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 21(4):414-424.
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KEY WORDS: SHEEP OVIS-CANADENSIS/PLASMA-CORTISOL/STRESS
73. Kuehler, C. Kuhn M. Mcilraith B. Campbell G. 1994. Artificial Incubation and Hand-Rearing of Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) Eggs Removed from the Wild. Zoo Biology 13(3):257-266.
ABSTRACT: The wild 'Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) population has been declining for many years, and only a few pairs of birds are currently reproductively active on the island of Hawaii. A recovery program was initiated in 1993 which included removing eggs from wild nesting birds for artificial rearing and reintroduction. This paper describes the artificial incubation and hand-rearing techniques. Eleven eggs were removed from three nesting pairs; eight were fertile, and seven hatched and were hand-reared (fertility, 72.7%; hatchability, 87.5%; survivability, 100%). Eggs were incubated in a forced-air incubator at 99.5-degrees-F (dry bulb), 80.0-86.0-degrees-F (wet bulb), and hatched under still-air conditions at 99.0-degrees-F (dry bulb) and 88.0-90-degrees-F (wet bulb). Hatched chicks were hand-fed a diet of fruit, insects, and mouse pups. (C) 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Corvidae/Conservation/Artificial Incubation/Hand-Rearing/Reintroduction
74. Leberg, P. L. 1993. Strategies for Population Reintroduction - Effects of Genetic Variability on Population Growth and Size. Conservation Biology 7(1):194-199.
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75. Leberg, P. L., Stangel, P. W., Hillestad, H. O., Marchinton, R. L., and Smith, M. H. 1994. Genetic Structure of Reintroduced Wild Turkey and White-Tailed Deer Populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 58(4):698-711.
ABSTRACT: Although reintroductions are an important management tool, little is known about their effects on the genetic structure of wildlife species. We studied wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations from the eastern United States to determine if the genetic similarity of populations was more affected by geographic proximity or by possible gene flow resulting from reintroduction programs. We examined allele frequencies at 5 polymorphic loci for turkeys from 22 locations and at 15 polymorphic loci for deer from 21 locations and compared genetic distances among populations for both species to geographic distances and reintroduction histories. For both species, genetic distances were smaller between pairs of populations that either had individuals transferred between them or that had both received individuals from a common source population than were distances between pairs of populations that had not been connected by reintroductions (P < 0.001). Geographic proximity of populations of both turkeys and deer was not associated with genetic similarity (P = 0.280 and 0.520, respectively). Reintroductions may have obscured genetic patterns resulting from other evolutionary processes such as gene flow through dispersal. Additionally, post-reintroduction dispersal has not erased the genetic contributions of reintroduced individuals to the populations they established. Reintroduction programs should attempt to create populations with high levels of genetic diversity and avoid unnecessary disruption of the evolutionary relationships among populations of a species.
KEY WORDS: Allozyme Electrophoresis/Genetic Variability/Meleagris-Gallopavo/Odocoileus-Virginianus/Reintroductions/White-Tailed Deer/Wild Turkey/VARIABILITY/CONSERVATION/BOTTLENECKS/MANAGEMENT/DIVERSITY/DISTANCE
76. Lloyd, B. D. Powlesland R. G. 1994. The Decline of Kakapo Strigops habroptilus and Attempts at Conservation by Translocation. Biological Conservation 69(1):75-85.
ABSTRACT: The kakapo Strigops habroptilus is a large, flightless, nocturnal parrot, endemic to New Zealand. Once abundant throughout New Zealand approximately 50 individuals now remain. In situ conservation of natural populations has proved impracticable, and recent conservation efforts have concentrated on establishing safe populations by translocating wild-caught kakapo to offshore islands without significant predators. The translocation method, developed to minimise transit time, was to attach radio-transmitters to free-living kakapo, recapture the radio-tagged birds for transfer when air transport was available and liberate them immediately upon arrival at the island. Between 1974 and 1992 65 kakapo were translocated to four of New Zealand's offshore islands (Maud, Little Barrier, Codfish, and Mana). Few, if any, kakapo now remain within their former range. Regular monitoring and intensive management of the translocated populations is being undertaken. Between 63 and 85% of translocated kakapo have survived but thus far productivity has been low, only two young having survived to independence.
KEY WORDS: New-Zealand/Kakapo/Translocation/Conservation/NEW-ZEALAND/ISLAND
77. Macdonald, D. W., Tattersall, F. H., Brown, E. D., and Balharry, D. 1995. Reintroducing the European beaver to Britain: Nostalgic meddling or restoring biodiversity? Mammal Review 25(4):161-200.
ABSTRACT: The European Beaver Castor fiber once occurred throughout Europe, but in many countries was exterminated or greatly reduced by over-hunting. In the UK, Beavers were last recorded in Scotland in the sixteenth century. Thirteen countries have carried out reintroduction programmes to restore the range of the Beaver in Europe, We provide a basis for discussing the feasibility and desirability of reintroducing the Beaver to Britain. The basic biology of the Beaver is described, followed by summaries of reintroductions in Europe and an evaluation of their successes and failures. We address the fundamental questions of propagule size, habitat requirements, habitat size and provenance of Beavers to be released, before examining in theory whether reintroducing Beavers to Britain is likely to fulfil UKCINC and IUCN criteria relating to environmental impact, socioeconomics and conservation. We then make suggestions as to how a reintroduction to Britain could proceed. Essential work outstanding includes site assessment and public consultation. The restoration of the Beaver to Britain could be a fitting start to the millennium.
KEY WORDS: POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS/CASTOR-CANADENSIS/DENSITY/STREAMS
78. Macmillan, S. 1995. Restoration of an extirpated red-sided garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis population in the Interlake region of Manitoba, Canada. Biological Conservation 72(1):13-16.
ABSTRACT: Red-sided garter snakes Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis were relocated to an extirpated hibernaculum infall 1985 to evaluate the use of transplants as a means of restoring snake populations in the Interlake region of Manitoba. In spring 1986, 84 of 720 transplanted snakes were recaptured at the den, substantiating the use of the den over winter. In fall 1986, only one transplanted snake was captured. It is not clear whether transplanted snakes returned in fall 1986 because sampling was disrupted by commercial snake harvesting. This prevented a good appraisal of transplant effectiveness. However, annual population censuses 3 years after the initial transplant indicated that a population of several hundred snakes was utilizing this den as a hibernaculum. Indeed, population numbers appeared to be increasing.
KEY WORDS: red-sided garter snake/Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis/population/restoration/transplantation/RELOCATION/AMPHIBIANS/REPTILES
79. Maguire, L. A. Servheen C. 1992. Integrating Biological and Sociological Concerns in Endangered Species Management - Augmentation of Grizzly Bear Populations. Conservation Biology 6(3):426-434.
ABSTRACT: To help the recovery of a remnant grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis) population in the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem in northwestern Montana, wildlife managers have proposed augmenting the population with bears translocated from a larger population. This proposal has raised fears that translocated bears might endanger human lives and livelihoods. To reconcile the biological needs of this grizzly population with the socioeconomic needs of the human population, we used a combination of decision analysis, consensus of expert opinion, and tradeoff analysis to design a pilot scale augmentation program to enhance grizzly viability while minimizing bear-human conflicts. The analysis incorporated objective and subjective information on the movements, behavior and reproductive potential of different age-sex classes elicited from a group of experts on grizzly biology and management This information was used to rank the different age-sex classes according to three criteria retention of translocated bears in the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem, conflict with human activities, and relative contribution to grizzly population growth. Subadult females were high in reproductive contribution and moderate in conflict, adult females were moderate in reproductive contribution and low in conflict, adult males were low in reproductive contribution and low in conflict, and subadult males were very low in reproductive contribution and high in conflict These rankings were insensitive to minor changes in the expert judgments used in the analysis. Because the goals of maximizing population growth and minimizing conflict could not be met with any age-sex class, we used tradeoff analysis to establish minimum thresholds for retention and maximum thresholds for conflict and to characterize the experts' preferences among different combinations of reproductive contribution and conflict. A reranking of the age-sex classes based on the tradeoff analysis showed that 4- to 8-year-old females were most preferred. The analysis revealed that no more than one out of three translocated bears was likely to remain within the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem and that as many as one out of four might seriously conflict with human activities. These results prompted an intensive public education program to muster support for the augmentation program before any translocations were attempted.
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80. Male, B. 1995. Recovery action for threatened species - An Australian perspective. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S204-S208.
ABSTRACT: The history, scope and nature of threats facing endangered and vulnerable species in Australia are reviewed, The Australian Endangered Species Programme was established in July 1989 to address these problems, The planned approach adopted by this programme, including action plans, recovery plans, amelioration of threatening processes and education and public awareness campaigns, is described and explained. Example recovery actions for two threatened Australian birds (Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster and Noisy Scrub-bird Atrichomis clamosis) are outlined.
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81. Malik, I. and Johnson, R. L. 1994. Commensal Rhesus in India - The Need and Cost of Translocation. Revue D Ecologie - La Terre et La Vie 49(3):233-243.
ABSTRACT: Two translocations of commensal rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) subgroups were undertaken in India as a conservation measure. In August 1989, a total of 21 animals were transported from Tughlaqabad, a site located on the southeastern outskirts of New Delhi, to Meetha Pur, a rural area about 10 km distant. In February 1990, 13 rhesus were taken from Phari Dheeraj, a crowded residential area in Old Delhi, and released at Lal Kuan, a public parkland located near the border of the State of Haryana. On a per-animal basis, the cost of translocating these 34 monkeys was 70 % less than that realized during a previous relocation of Indian rhesus conducted in 1984. The rhesus is not endangered in India, but does occupy a vulnerable position given that (1) its numbers are much reduced relative to what they were 30 years ago, and (2) it is strongly commensal and capable of causing considerable damage to crops and other property. The utility of translocation in the conservation of India's remaining rhesus is discussed in the light of the results of the Tughlaqabad and Phari Dheeraj efforts. It is concluded that, while the cost per animal could be cut further by practicing the relocation of commensal rhesus on a larger scale, the use of translocation on a nation-wide basis will probably remain prohibitively expensive in India, a country with limited financial resources.
KEY WORDS: MONKEY POPULATIONS
82. Mansur, L. M. Hadder K. M. Suarez J. C. 1990. A Computer Program for Calculating the Population Size Necessary to Recover Any Number of Individuals Exhibiting a Trait. Journal of Heredity 81(5):407-408.
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83. Martin, C. M. 1995. Recovering endangered species and restoring ecosystems: Conservation planning for the twenty-first century in the United States. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S198-S203.
ABSTRACT: The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, is one of the most significant pieces of conservation legislation ever passed in the United States. The passage of this act spawned the creation of the Endangered Species Program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Under the Act, the USFWS has responsibility for implementing many provisions of the Act: listings, consultations, enforcement of prohibitions and recovery planning, Recovering threatened and endangered species, as well as other declining species yet. to be listed, is accomplished through many of the activities that occur under the auspices of the Act, not only through the formal recovery planning process. The Act is fundamentally an instrument for ecosystem conservation, although this aspect of the Act is often overlooked, Planning and implementing an ecosystem approach to conservation activities is a priority for the USFWS, not only for threatened and endangered species but for all wildlife, The recent emphasis on regional habitat conservation planning and the development of regional and multi-species recovery plans are indicative of the priority placed on sound ecosystem conservation planning. All of these processes are implemented with the participation of the potentially affected communities and state wildlife management agencies through a public review process. State conservation agencies are part of the process through a special grant programme.
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84. Massot, M. Clobert J. Lecomte J. Barbault R. 1994. Incumbent Advantage in Common Lizards and Their Colonizing Ability. Journal of Animal Ecology 63(2):431-440.
ABSTRACT: 1. Settlement in a new environment is a key phase in effective dispersal. We investigated this phase in the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara Jacquin) by an experimental introduction of known individuals. 2. Introducing lizards in an already occupied environment revealed a prior-residence advantage and some differences in the ability of individuals to face a new environment under conditions of high intraspecific competition. 3. Transplanted individuals (TI) died in larger numbers than resident ones (RI) immediately after the introduction, except for juveniles. this prior-residence advantage could arise from the difference of familiarity with the local environment or from a dominant behaviour of RI on TI. 4. TI which survived the first winter after the introduction survived better than RI afterwards. However, surviving TI females paid a cost in their reproduction. 5. Surviving TI were not a random subset of the initial sample: smaller adult males and leaner adult females were selected. These selective responses arose from the transplantation since they were not observed in non-manipulated populations. 6. A comparison of characteristics between natural transient or immigrant individuals and TI survivors revealed: (i) TI male and yearling survivors may have been transients or immigrants in their site of origin; (ii) TI adult female survivors were not transients nor immigrants in their site of origin. The latter result questions the use of introduction experiments to test dispersal ability. Strictly. introduction experiments only test settlement ability.
KEY WORDS: Dispersal/Introduction Experiment/Lacerta-Vivipara/Prior-Residence Advantage/Settlement Ability/DARK-EYED JUNCOS/LACERTA-VIVIPARA/PRIOR-RESIDENCE/REPRODUCTIVE EFFORT/SURVIVAL RATE/TREE LIZARDS/DOMINANCE/POPULATIONS/SIZE/SEX
85. Matsuda, H. and Akamine, T. 1994. Simultaneous Estimation of Mortality and Dispersal Rates of an Artificially Released Population. Researches on Population Ecology 36(1):73-78.
ABSTRACT: Mark-recapture methods cannot estimate both mortality and dispersal rates of a wild population simultaneously. However, when an artificially cultured population is released into an area, the initial population size and the initial population distribution are usually known. If artificially cultured individuals are released with marks or distinguished from wild individuals or if no wild individual exists in the study area, we can estimate both the mortality and dispersal rates of the artificial population. The numbers of dispersed and dead individuals are estimated from the dispersal rate from the diffusion model and the total decreasing rate estimated from a mark-recapture data. We can estimate both the time-dependent and time-dependent dispersal rates from the data. We choose the best fit model that has the smallest value of Akaike's Information Criteria. We also consider ''concentric circles approximation'' of spatial distribution, in which the cumulative and frequency distributions are analytically obtained.
KEY WORDS: Maximum Likelihood Method/Diffusion Equation/Random Dispersal/Mark-Recapture Method/Akaike Information Criteria/ESTIMATING ANIMAL ABUNDANCE
86. Mccallum, H., Timmers, P., and Hoyle, S. 1995. Modelling the impact of predation on reintroductions of bridled nailtail wallabies. Wildlife Research 22(2):163-171.
ABSTRACT: Predation by introduced foxes and cars is generally thought to be the main reason for the poor success rate of macropod reintroductions on the Australian mainland. Predator-prey theory suggests that predation may have particularly severe impacts on very small populations, especially if a more common primary prey species is present (such as the rabbit). Thus, a sufficiently large reintroduction may overcome predation and succeed where a smaller one would fail. The minimum viable population would, however, be much larger than that predicted by standard population-viability analysis. We use a simple stochastic model based upon the bridled nailtail wallaby to explore this possibility. Even very small amounts of predation (2-4 individuals per six months) can be sufficient to cause reintroductions of up to 50 animals to fail. No clear threshold population size beyond which reintroductions will succeed is evident and, for a given mean, the probability distribution of predation has a very limited impact on the success of reintroductions. In almost all circumstances, a single reintroduction of a given size is preferable to multiple reintroductions of the same total number of individuals.
KEY WORDS: POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS/AUSTRALIA/KANGAROOS/DYNAMICS/RED
87. Mech, L. D. 1995. The Challenge and Opportunity of Recovering Wolf Populations. Conservation Biology 9(2):270-278.
ABSTRACT: The gray wolf once inhabited a wide variety of habitats throughout most of the northern hemisphere north of 20-degrees-N latitude. Because the animal preyed on livestock and competed with humans for wild prey, it was extirpated from much of its range outside of wilderness areas. Environmental awareness in the late 1960s brought for the wolf legal protection, increased research, and favorable media coverage. The species has increased in both Europe and North America, is beginning to reoccupy semiwilderness and agricultural land, and is causing increased damage to livestock. Because of the wolf's high reproductive rate and long dispersal tendencies, the animal can recolonize many more areas. In most such areas control will be necessary, but the same public sentiments that promoted wolf recovery reject control. If wolf advocates could accept control by the public rather than by the government, wolves could live in far more places. Insistence on government control discourages some officials and government agencies from promoting recovery. The use of large- or small-scale zoning for wolf management may help resolve the issue. Public education is probably the most effective way to minimize the problem and maximize wolf recovery, but the effort must begin immediately.
KEY WORDS: CANIS-LUPUS/NORTHEASTERN MINNESOTA/WOLVES/DISPERSAL
88. Meier, A. J. Noble R. E. Zwank P. J. 1990. Criteria for the Introduction of the St Croix Ground Lizard. Pages 154-156 in Mitchell, R. S., Sheviak, C. J., Leopold, D. J., eds. Ecosystem Management : Rare Species and Significant Habits. New York State Museum, Univ State New York/State Educ Dept/Albany/NY 12230.
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89. Meltzer, D. G. A. 1993. Historical Survey of Disease Problems in Wildlife Populations - Southern Africa Mammals. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):237-244.
ABSTRACT: The impact of some diseases on the translocation of African wildlife has been wide-spread. Rinderpest has remained in Africa since its introduction in 1888. The rigid control measures adopted to prevent the spread of rinderpest. foot-and-mouth disease, and theileriosis to domestic animals in Africa restrict the possible translocation of even endangered species. In some cases, the translocation of wild animals has resulted in the transmission of the disease. African horse sickness was carried to Spain in 1987 when zebras were translocated there from Namibia. When springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) were moved to the Bontebok National Park, Republic of South Africa (RSA), they introduced lungworm (Bronchonema magna), which then infested the bontebok (Damaliscus dorcas dorcas). Translocated wild animals also succumb to endemic disease: heartwater in the Transvaal bushveld prevents the translocation of springbok into this area because this species is susceptible to this disease, and babesiosis has been reported in naive sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) imported into the RSA from Europe. Animals translocated into unsuitable habitats, e.g., roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) translocated to the Percy Fyfe Nature Reserve, RSA, and gemsbok (Oryx gazella) translocated to the Orange Free State, RSA, do not thrive. Salmonellosis, apparently acquired while being held in enclosures, has been reported in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and a black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Feline infectious peritonitis has been described in captive wild-caught cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).
KEY WORDS: Historic Review/African Wildlife/Translocation/Disease Transmission/Disease Impact/RINDERPEST/OUTBREAK/NIGERIA
90. Melvin, S. M. Griffin C. R. Macivor L. H. 1991. Recovery Strategies for Piping Plovers in Managed Coastal Landscapes. Coastal Management 19(1):21-34.
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91. Meyers, J. M. Miller D. L. 1992. Post-Release Activity of Captive-Reared and Wild-Reared Bald Eagles. Journal of Wildlife Management 56(4):744-749.
ABSTRACT: Rearing methods may affect behavior of bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) hacked back to the wild and may reduce successful releases and restoration of a population. Thus, we compared dispersal time and age, habitat use, site tenacity, sightings, and returns for captive- (n = 12) and wild-reared (n = 10) bald eagles after release and fledging from a hacking tower in northeastern Alabama. Captive- (92.2%) and wild-reared (92.5%) bald eagles were radio-located (n = 549) in predominately forest/wetland edges. Eagles moved 0.8-1.3 km away from the release tower during the first week. Captive-reared bald eagles returned closer (P < 0.01) to the tower during the second and third weeks after release than wild-reared birds. By the fifth week after release, both groups moved away from the tower. Weekly dispersal rates were similar between groups except during the second week after release when 5 of 10 wild-reared eagles left the area (> 25 km), A higher rate of return (P < 0.05) to the tower, a longer time (P < 0.05) in the backing tower after release and before fledging, and a larger number of locations on or near the tower (61.6% vs. 31.9%, P < 0.01) after release for captive-reared eagles suggests they had stronger site tenacity (imprinting) to the hacking tower. Captive-reared eagles also dispersed at the same age as eagles raised at wild nests. Our data suggest that release of captive-reared eagles raised without adult eagles is appropriate when translocation of young birds is not feasible or biologically sound.
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92. Miller, B. K. 1990. Factors Affecting Survival of Transplanted Eastern Wild Turkeys in Indiana. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18(1):65-70.
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93. Miller, B. Reading R. Conway C. Jackson J. A. Hutchins M. Snyder N. Forrest S. Frazier J. Derrickson S. 1994. A Model for Improving Endangered Species Recovery Programs. Environmental Management 18(5):637-645.
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses common organizational problems that cause inadequate planning and implementation processes of endangered species recovery across biologically dissimilar species. If these problems occur, even proven biological conservation techniques are jeopardized. We propose a solution that requires accountability in all phases of the restoration process and is based on cooperative input among government agencies, nongovernmental conservation organizations, and the academic community. The first step is formation of a task-oriented recovery team that integrates the best expertise into the planning process. This interdisciplinary team should be composed of people whose skills directly address issues critical for recovery. Once goals and procedures are established, the responsible agency (for example, in the United States, the US Fish and Wildlife Service) could divest some or all of its obligation for implementing the plan, yet still maintain oversight by holding implementing entities contractually accountable. Regular, periodic outside review and public documentation of the recovery team, lead agency, and the accomplishments of implementing bodies would permit evaluation necessary to improve performance. Increased cooperation among agency and nongovernmental organizations provided by this model promises a more efficient use of limited resources toward the conservation of biodiversity.
KEY WORDS: Endangered Species/Management/Policy/Recovery Plan/Recover Team/Organizational Structure/6 BIOLOGICAL REASONS/CONSERVATION/SCIENCE/POLICY/ACT/MANAGEMENT/WORK/EPA
94. Miller, C. J. Craig J. L. Mitchell N. D. 1994. Ark 2020 - A Conservation Vision for Rangitoto and Motutapu Islands. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 24(1):65-90.
ABSTRACT: Our vision for the development of Rangitoto and Motutapu Islands is that they be restored to the state of functioning native ecosystems. In order to achieve this, all mammals and invasive weeds must first be eradicated. Following this, past ecological and culturally-influenced communities can be restored by the revegetation of large areas of Motutapu and the reintroduction, or translocation, of native fauna. There is a need for open public access and provision for full interpretation of the Maori and Pakeha culture and history, as well as of the ecological values associated with these two islands. This document outlines a strategy whereby such a project could be achieved. While this document is not intended to be a definitive working plan for the restoration of these islands, we believe that a strategy along these lines is one that would best meet the needs of both native flora and fauna and also of the New Zealand public.
KEY WORDS: Rangitoto Island/Motutapu Island/Ecosystem Restoration/Conservation/Revegetation/Species Reintroduction/Public Involvement/Open Sanctuary/STOATS MUSTELA-ERMINEA/NEW-ZEALAND
95. Miller, M. A. 1994. Provisioning by Captive Yellow-Tufted Honeyeaters (Lichenostomus melanops gippslandicus) Acting as Foster Parents for Helmeted Honeyeater Chicks (L. m. cassidix). Zoo Biology 13(3):209-217.
ABSTRACT: A captive breeding program is being conducted with the endangered helmeted honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix). Establishment of breeding stock involved cross fostering helmeted honeyeater chicks to breeding yellow-tufted honeyeaters (Lichenostomus melanops gippslandicus). Data were collected on provisioning rates and food preferences of the foster parents in feeding chicks of the helmeted subspecies. Feeding rates varied from 5 -6 each hour per chick in the first week to 8-10 per chick in week 3 and were similar for both one- and two-chick broods. Chicks were considered independent by 6 weeks. Provisioning by the foster parents was evenly divided between the sexes. Insects were the main food item fed to nestlings (89.9%). Moths and mealworms were the two most frequently selected items and were the two largest items available. The continued increase of the captive population may provide individuals for release to the wild population, and techniques developed through captive management will help conserve wild populations. (C) 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Chick Rearing/Avian Diets/Cross Fostering
96. Miller, P. S. 1994. Is Inbreeding Depression More Severe in a Stressful Environment. Zoo Biology 13(3):195-208.
ABSTRACT: Successful reintroduction of endangered species depends in part on their ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. Population genetics theory suggests that inbred populations lacking genetic variability may be unable to respond effectively to environmental stress. There have been very few studies designed explicitly to investigate the phenomenon of inbreeding depression under environmental stress, particularly in the context of conservation genetics. Three separate experiments using Drosophila melanogaster were designed to explore this issue. No increase in the magnitude of inbreeding depression was detected in laboratory lines subjected to three generations of continuous full-sib mating under temperature stress (28-degrees-C), lead stress (medium contaminated with 400 ppm Pb), or a combination of these stresses. Individual isofemale lines from a different population, however, did show significant increases in inbreeding depression when exposed to temperature stress for one generation of full-sib mating following three generations of full-sib inbreeding at 25-degrees-C. Further, chromosome-2 homozygotes showed, on average, a significant increase in inbreeding depression under lead stress when in competition with corresponding chromosome-2 heterozygotes compared to the same lines in a benign environment. Taken together, these results suggest that inbreeding depression is more severe under conditions of environmental stress and is more likely to be realized in an inter- or intraspecific competitive situation as can be experienced in the wild. Therefore, it is likely that reduced genetic variability through inbreeding is a much greater problem for recently reintroduced populations than it is for populations in a relatively benign zoo environment. (C) 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Captive Breeding/Competition/Drosophila/Genetic Variation/Reintroduction
97. Miller, P. S. Hedrick P. W. 1993. Inbreeding and Fitness in Captive Populations - Lessons from Drosophila. Zoo Biology 12(4):333-351.
ABSTRACT: The avoidance of inbreeding is a primary goal of endangered species population management. In order to fully understand the effects of inbreeding on the fitness of natural and captive populations, it is necessary to consider fitness components which span the entire life cycle of the organism. Using Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism for conservation genetics studies, we constructed 18 experimental lines derived from wild-type stocks which were homozygous for chromosome 2 (this chromosome constitutes 38% of the genome or is equivalent to F = 0.38). For six of these lines which exhibited a reduced homozygous fitness, we estimated the relative values of fitness components operating at both the juvenile stage (pre-adult viability) and adult stage (female fecundity and male-mating ability) of the life cycle. Males in these lines showed a markedly reduced mating ability, while viability and female fecundity were much less affected. Equilibrium values of the wild-type chromosomes in these lines were accurately predicted using a model that incorporated into it these independently estimated fitness components. These results emphasize the importance of studying all fitness components directly to determine overall fitness. A reduced mating ability among inbred males of a captive population can have serious consequences for its future sustainability, and can further jeopardize reintroduction efforts; consequently, a program to carefully monitor the reproductive success of individual males, as well as other fitness components, is recommended. (C) 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Captive Breeding/Genetic Variation/Male-Mating Ability/Reintroduction
98. Mistretta, O. 1994. Genetics of Species Re-Introduction - Applications of Genetic Analysis. Biodiversity and Conservation 3(2):184-190.
ABSTRACT: The value of obtaining genetic information as a prerequisite to management decisions regarding rare plant species is assessed using specific examples. The conclusions derived indicate that specific genetic information can help direct planning, strategy and development and the allocation of resources. However, such information can also be valueless in management terms because the information obtained, by its nature, cannot always be interpreted unambiguously, and thus is unable to provide the predictive certainty that is often required or expected by management personnel. It is important that such caveats be clear, to management personnel before applying genetic studies for applied purposes.
KEY WORDS: Rare Plants/Genetic Analysis/Management/Conservation
99. Mlot, C. 1990. Restorationists Return Native Species to Damaged Lands - Is Conservation Enough - This New Breed of Scientists Seeks to Do More, Repairing the Harm Done by Man. Scientist 4(15):4.
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100. Moore, D. E. 1990. The Red Wolf - Extinction, Captive Propagation and Reintroduction. Pages 136-139 in Mitchell, R. S., Sheviak, C. J., Leopold, D. J., eds. Ecosystem Management : Rare Species and Significant Habits. New York State Museum, Albany, NY .
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101. Mrlik, V. Koubek P. 1992. Relation of Birds of Prey to the Place of Release of Artificially-Bred Pheasant Chicks. Folia Zoologica 41(3):233-252.
ABSTRACT: Investigations were carried out in the region of southern Moravia from 1987 to 1989 (August-March). Within Czechoslovakia, this is a locality both qualitatively and quantitatively rich in birds of prey (predators). Among these the most abundant was Buteo buteo - 77.3 %, other abundant species included Falco tinnunculus - 6.8 %, Circus cyaneus - 5.2 %, Accipiter nisus - 2.8 %, Accipiter gentilis - 1.9 % Milvus milvus - 1.4 % and Pernis apivorus - 1.2 %. Another 9 species were represented by less than 1 %. In view of the aim of this paper the authors considered Buteo buteo, Circus cyaneus, Accipiter nisus and Accipiter gentilis to be the predators of artificially-bred pheasant chicks. Each year 500-900 pheasant chicks were released. An analysis of the study and check transects and their comparison did not suggest any increase in the abundance of these predatory species in places associated with the release of pheasant chicks. Neither did the methods applied demonstrate in any predatory species preference for posts associated with pheasant release.
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102. Munson, L. Cook R. A. 1993. Monitoring, Investigation, and Surveillance of Diseases in Captive Wildlife. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):281-290.
ABSTRACT: Conservation programs for captive breeding and reintroduction of threatened and endangered species need a means to assess the risk of introducing infectious diseases into or obtaining diseases from the reintroduction environment. Risk assessment is seriously hampered by insufficient knowledge of the diseases of these species. Acquisition of data on the infectious diseases of threatened and endangered species can be expedited through cooperative disease surveys of captive and free-ranging animals. Integrating information from various sources will be greatly facilitated by setting standards for data collection. Standard guidelines for monitoring, investigating, and surveillance of infectious diseases in captive animals are presented that will provide essential information for an infectious disease data base. A method for prioritizing infectious diseases by the degree of threat to a species or environment is also proposed, so that the limited resources for disease investigations can be appropriately allocated. Application of these methods to species targeted for reintroduction will reduce the risk of human-caused catastrophic epidemics in endangered species. Furthermore, these methods will significantly increase our knowledge of disease epidemiology in nondomestic species.
KEY WORDS: Diagnostic Tests/Pathology/Data Base/Quarantine/Reintroduction/Risk Analysis
103. Musil, D. D., Reese, K. P., and Connelly, J. W. 1994. Nesting and Summer Habitat Use by Translocated Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in Central Idaho. Great Basin Naturalist 54(3):228-233.
ABSTRACT: We translocated 196 Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) into Sawtooth Valley, Idaho, during March-April 1986-87 to augment a small resident population. Forty-four grouse equipped with radio transmitters were monitored through spring and summer. Nest sites (n = 6) had greater (P = .032) horizontal cover than did independent random plots (n = 7). During summer, grouse used sites (n = 50) with taller live and dead shrub heights, greater shrub canopy cover, and more ground litter (P < .009) than were found on dependent random plots (n = 50) 50-300 m from use sites. Distance to edge and mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata vaseyana) density best separated use sites from independent random plots in logistic regression analysis and correctly classified 64% of the use sites and 78% of the independent random plots. Sage Grouse used sites that had narrower frequency distributions for many variables than did independently plots (P < .04), suggesting selection for uniform habitat.
KEY WORDS: Centrocercus-Urophasianus/Dispersal/Habitat Use/Home Range/Idaho/Radio Telemetry/Sage Grouse/Translocation
104. Nelson, M. E. 1994. Migration bearing and distance memory by translocated white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus. Canadian Field - Naturalist 108(1):74-76.
ABSTRACT: Of nine White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) translocated during winter, four attempted to return 10-22 km to their capture sites and two did so successfully. Three deer translocated 22 km did not attempt to home but established summer home ranges with distances and bearings from winter ranges that mimicked those of their group members not translocated. Apparently, memory of distance and direction of a migration pattern is part of the navigation process and independent of the topography in which the migration first occurred.
KEY WORDS: White-tailed Deer/Odocoileus virginianus/migration/translocation/navigation
105. Nesbitt, S. A. Carpenter J. W. 1993. Survival and Movements of Greater Sandhill Cranes Experimentally Released in Florida. Journal of Wildlife Management 57(4):673-679.
ABSTRACT: The potential reintroduction of a population of whooping cranes (Grus americana) in Florida depends on having an effective introduction technique. We tested 2 experimental release techniques to evaluate post-release survival, dispersal, and the innate predilection to migration in cranes as a preliminary step in the establishment of a non-migrating population of whooping cranes. Thirty-four eggs of migratory greater sandhill cranes (GSHC) (G. canadensis tabida) were exchanged for the clutches in 23 nests of Florida sandhill cranes (FSHC) (G. c. pratensis), a non-migratory subspecies; 5 young were fledged from these introductions. Concurrently, 27 captive-reared, subadult GSHC were soft-released in the same area of north-central Florida. Movements and survival of both release groups were assessed through radio telemetry. In general, dispersal was similar to normal, subadult FSHC. The experimental birds tended to move south in autumn, but did not move north in the spring; frequency of southern movements was not different in control and experimental groups. Survival differed (P < 0.005) between experimental groups; 56% for captive-reared young (for the first year following release) and 39% for foster-reared young (from hatching to leaving natal home range). Our data suggest that captive-rearing and soft-release should be used as the primary reintroduction strategy for future releases of whooping cranes.
KEY WORDS: CONSERVATION
106. Nolet, B. A. and Baveco, J. M. 1996. Development and viability of a translocated beaver Castor fiber population in the Netherlands. Biological Conservation 75(2):125-137.
ABSTRACT: We monitored survival, reproduction and emigration of a translocated beaver Castor fiber population in the Netherlands for five years and used a stochastic model to assess its viability. Between 1988 and 1991, 42 beavers were released in the Biesbosch National Park. The mortality was initially high but gradually fell to normal rates. However, the breeding success was low, and we hypothesized that this was either a temporary phenomenon (the translocation hypothesis) or a permanent feature (the poor habitat hypothesis). According to the computer simulations, the isolated population was viable under the first but not under the second hypothesis. In the latter case, the prospects generally improved by the foundation of another population in the Gelderse Poort (100 km from the Biesbosch), However, this second habitat should be optimal for beavers in order to reduce the extinction probability of the Biesbosch population to below 10% in 100 years,' the loss of genetic variability (1-2% per generation) was just above the applied tolerable risk (1%), but the effects of inbreeding are unknown in beavers. We conclude that the beaver population in the Biesbosch is not viable unless the reproductive success increases, either in the Biesbosch itself or in a nearby population. We recommend applying such viability analyses to evaluate the likely success of any translocation.
KEY WORDS: population viability analysis/reintroduction/translocation/simulation model/Castor fiber/SPECIES CONSERVATION/EXTINCTION
107. Parker, W. T. Phillips M. K. 1991. Application of the Experimental Population Designation to Recovery of Endangered Red Wolves. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19(1):73-79.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
108. Pearcekelly, P., Mace, G. M., and Clarke, D. 1995. The release of captive bred snails (Partula taeniata) into a semi-natural environment. Biodiversity and Conservation 4(6):645-663.
ABSTRACT: A population of zoo bred Partula taeniata was released into a patch of native Polynesian plants in the Palm House at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, UK. The released snails were from a colony established from wild-caught snails in 1982, which had been in captive conditions for up to six generations. Monitoring of the snails was continuous and intensive for the first 2 weeks, and at decreasing frequency over the next 15 months. There was high survivorship early on in the release, but once the intensive monitoring ended survivorship became hard to determine due to difficulties in locating snails in the large and complex habitat. However, snails are known to have persisted for at least 15 months, and new individuals have been noted maturing into all developmental stages. The snails exhibited patterns of feeding and microhabitat choice similar to those observed in the wild, despite being reared in a highly artificial environment. The methods and results provide some guidelines for future release trials for this highly endangered group of snails.
KEY WORDS: captive breeding/introduction/Partula/monitoring invertebrate conservation
109. Pennycuik, P. R. Reisner A. H. 1990. The Founding Population - The Effect of Differences in Its Size, Nature and Season of Establishment on the Subsequent Dynamics of Populations of House Mice, Mus-Musculus L. Australian Journal of Zoology 38(5):479-492.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: NUMBERS/MOUSE/AUSTRALIA/PLAGUES/FOOD
110. Philippart, J. C. 1995. Is captive breeding an effective solution for the preservation of endemic species? Biological Conservation 72(2):281-295.
ABSTRACT: Captive breeding and the release of captive-bred individuals into the wild are among the techniques used for the conservation of rare and endangered fish species. After a brief description of the methods of captive breeding and the establishment of breeding stocks, this paper provides examples of the application of these techniques to endemic fish species of arid regions in south-western USA and examines some current cases and the future possibilities for their use in the Mediterranean region. Special attention is given to the analysis of the strict constraints imposed on fish breeding for conservation purposes, in which the aim is to produce fish with all the morphological, behavioural and genetic characteristics of the taxa to be conserved, and which are capable of effectively adapting to the natural environment when introduced. In terms of genetic management of captive populations, the fundamental problems which are faced involve the categorization of the species-resources to be conserved (identification of cases of inter- and intra-specific introgression), the establishment of founder stocks that contain the maximum genetic diversity depending on the genetic structure of the species (strong intra- or interpopulation variability), and the retention of genetic variability during captive breeding (the need to reduce to the minimum the phenomena of genetic drift, inbreeding and unintentional selection of non-adapted genotypes). Because of these difficulties and risks in terms of genetic conservation, captive breeding should remain a temporary safeguard measure, while awaiting the implementation of measures for protecting species in their restored original habitat or translocation to strictly protected substitute habitats. With this aim in view and in conclusion, the paper suggests methods for organizing a critical plan to safeguard the most endangered species or subspecies in the Mediterranean region by captive breeding.</