This database was last revised on 1 April 1998 by Brad Griffith.
1. Anon. 1989. Ecosystems - Conservation and Restoration. Pages 13-20 in Research Priorities for Conservation Biology.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
2. Anon. 1989. The Harasis and the Re-Introduction Project. Pages 202-221 in Animal Re-Introductions.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
3. Anon. 1989. Operation Oryx, Captive Breeding and Re-Introduction Planning. Pages 44-67 in Animal Re-Introductions.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
4. Anon. 1989. The Re-Introduction Area and the Harasis Tribe. Pages 68-93 in Animal Re-Introductions.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
5. Anon. 1989. Reproduction, Propagation, and Release. Pages 47-54 in Research Priorities for Conservation Biology.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
6. Anon. 1989. Towards a Rationale for Re-Introductions. Pages 239-257 in Animal Re-Introductions.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
7. Anon. 1991. The Consequences of Introductions and Extinctions. Pages 334-356 in The Balance of Nature , Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
8. Anon. 1991. Species Differences and Community Structure as Explanations of Why Introductions Fail. Pages 173-188 in The Balance of Nature , Univ Chicago Press, Chicago, IL .
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
9. Akcakaya, H. R. 1990. Bald Ibis Geronticus-Eremita Population in Turkey - An Evaluation of the Captive Breeding Project for Reintroduction. Biological Conservation 51(3):225-237.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
10. Allen, D. H. Franzreb K. E. Escano R. E. F. 1993. Efficacy of Translocation Strategies for Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21(2):155-159.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: CAVITIES
11. Arano, B., Llorente, G., Garciaparis, M., and Herrero, P. 1995. Species translocation menaces Iberian waterfrogs. Conservation Biology 9(1):196-198.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: HETEROZYGOSITY/AMPHIBIANS/REPTILES/HYBRIDS
12. Armstrong, D. P. 1995. Effects of Familiarity on the Outcome of Translocations .2. A Test Using New -Zealand Robins. Biological Conservation 71(3):281-288.
ABSTRACT: Research on birds has shown that familiarity between mates and neighbours leads to lower aggression and higher reproductive success. This study addresses the hypothesis that founder groups used for translocations will do better if made up of individuals that are familiar with one another. The study involved a translocation of a territorial forest bird, the North Island robin Petroica australis longipes to an offshore island. I created both 'familiar groups' (made up of birds that had been adjacent to one another at the source location) and 'unfamiliar groups' (made up of birds that had been widely separated). I released the groups in separate forest patches on the island, and assessed the effects of familiarity on aggression, dispersal, survival and pair bonding. While the study was limited by the sample sizes possible, there was no indication that 'familiar groups' performed differently than 'unfamiliar groups', or that familiarity at the source location affected behavioural interactions following translocation. Post-translocation familiarity was clearly important, for aggression declined according to how long birds had been neighbours at the new location. There was little aggression in general over the first two to five weeks, the period when an effect of prior familiarity on aggression may have been most important. In addition, breakup of 'familiar' groups by dispersal meant that there was limited opportunity for interaction among familiar birds. These results suggest that familiarity within founder groups is unlikely to have strong effects following translocation.
KEY WORDS: Translocation/Re-Introduction/Familiarity/Conservation/New-Zealand/Territoriality/Dispersal/RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS/TERRITORIAL HONEYEATERS/CONSPECIFIC ATTRACTION/NEIGHBORS/BIRDS/STRATEGY
13. Armstrong, D. P. and Craig, J. L. 1995. Effects of Familiarity on the Outcome of Translocations .1. A Test Using Saddlebacks Philesturnus-Carunculatus-Rufusater. Biological Conservation 71(2):133-141.
ABSTRACT: Translocation, the intentional release of a species in a new location, plays an important role in the conservation of endangered species. Consequently, there is a critical need for research on factors affecting the outcome of translocation attempts. This study addresses the hypothesis that founder groups will do better if they are made up of individuals that are familiar with one another. The hypothesis is based on research on birds showing that familiarity between mates and neighbors leads to lower aggression and higher reproductive success. Our test involved a translocation of the North Island saddleback Philesturnus carunculatus rufusater, a New Zealand forest bird restricted to islands free of mammalian predators. We created two founder groups of 18 birds each, one made up of birds from a single small forest patch, and including five known pairs, and the other a mixture of birds from several patches, with no pairs. We released the groups in different parts of an island, and assessed the effects of familiarity on survival, dispersal, pair bonding, and reproduction. The two groups showed similarly high survival, and both dispersed widely. Pair bonds formed more quickly among the familiar birds, even though only one of the five original pairs stayed together after translocation. While pairing among unfamiliar birds tended to be delayed, they achieved a similarly high rate of pairing by the start of the breeding season, and reproductive output was similar for familiar and unfamiliar pairs. We therefore found no evidence that using familiar individuals would improve the outcome of bird translocations. We note that familiarity could be more important with other species and/or in other circumstances. However, we also note the potential costs of using familiar individuals.
KEY WORDS: Translocation/Re-Introduction/Conservation/New-Zealand/Familiarity/RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS/TERRITORIAL HONEYEATERS/NEIGHBORS/CONSERVATION/BIRDS/AGE
14. Ballou, J. D. 1993. Assessing the Risks of Infectious Diseases in Captive Breeding and Reintroduction Programs. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):327-335.
ABSTRACT: Disease risks are an inherent part of captive breeding, translocation, and reintroduction Programs and of research involving contact between researchers and animals. Thus, quantitative assessment of the risks of disease should be an important part of developing conservation strategies. Population viability analysis (PVA) and the use of computer modeling allows conservation planners to examine the potential effects of both the catastrophic and subcatastrophic effects of disease on long-term population viability, measured as probability of extinction, and to explore strategies to mitigate unacceptably high risks. The effects of diseases on the demographic, environmental, and genetic aspects of a population should be examined. Metapopulation management strategies that establish geographically separate populations are likely to provide protection against total population extinction due to single disease epidemics. However, to offset the genetic costs of smaller population size, movement of animals (under quarantined supervision) may be required.
KEY WORDS: Disease Risk/Population Viability Analyses/Metapopulation/Captive Breeding/CALLITRICHID HEPATITIS/POPULATIONS
15. Bath, A. J. 1991. Public Attitudes About Wolf Restoration in Yellowstone-National-Park. Pages 367-376 in Keiter, R. B., Boyce, M. S., eds. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Yale Univ Press, New Haven, CT.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
16. Bath, A. J. Buchanan T. 1989. Attitudes of Interest Groups in Wyoming Toward Wolf Restoration in Yellowstone National Park. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17(4):519-525.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
17. Beck, B. Cooper M. Griffith B. 1993. Infectious Disease Considerations in Reintroduction Programs for Captive Wildlife. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):394-397.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
18. Bell, B. D. 1994. A review of the status of New Zealand Leiopelma species (Anura: Leiopelmatidae), including a summary of demographic studies in Coromandel and on Maud Island. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 21(4):341-349.
ABSTRACT: Six species of Leiopelma frog endemic to New Zealand have been described, but three are extinct. Field surveys have extended the known contemporary ranges of L. archeyi and L. hochstetteri, though sub-fossils reveal that both L. hochstetteri and L. archeyi/hamiltoni were formerly more widespread in New Zealand than they are now. A new North Island population of terrestrial Leiopelma resembling L. archeyi has recently been found. Introduced predators and food competitors, especially Rattus, have probably had a major detrimental impact on Leiopelma. No extant species is immediately at risk of extinction, but L. hamiltoni on Stephens and Maud Islands is very restricted in range and/or numbers. Leiopelma reaches high densities (up to 8 frogs/m(2)) in suitable rock-strewn habitats and can be relatively long-lived (L. archeyi 17+ years, L. hamiltoni 23+ years). Population levels of L. archeyi have fluctuated in a Coromandel study plot sampled approximately annually over 1982-93, but on Maud Island L. hamiltoni numbers were more stable or increased slightly over the years 1983-93. Experimental translocations of L. hamiltoni were made on Maud Island (1984-85) and on Stephens Island (1992). The new colony on Maud Island has bred successfully, and locally bred young have been recruited into the population.
KEY WORDS: Leiopelma/New Zealand/conservation/systematics/demography/translocation
19. Bendel, P. R. and Therres, G. D. 1994. Movements, Site Fidelity and Survival of Delmarva Fox Squirrels Following Translocation. American Midland Naturalist 132(2):227-233.
ABSTRACT: Twenty wild-trapped Delmarva fox squirrels (Sciurus niger cinereus) were translocated from core population areas to a release site within their former range in Maryland. Squirrels were equipped with radio-collars and released during midspring and midautumn and monitored at least 90 days postrelease. Nine known deaths occurred during the study, five within the 1st 35 days. All translocated squirrels remained on the release site. The mean distance moved from the point of release was 589 m (n = 15). The ranges for males (n = 5) and females (n = 10) were similar (P = 0.743). Midspring released squirrels (n = 8) ranged further from the point of release than those translocated in midautumn (n = 7) (P = 0.043). Seasonal differences in movement appeared to be influenced by habitat. Delmarva fox squirrels used certain forest types in greater proportion than available and habitat use differed between seasons.
KEY WORDS:
20. Bennett, P. M. 1990. Establishing Breeding Programmes for Threatened Species Between Zoos. Journal of Zoology 220:513-515.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
21. Black, J. M. 1995. The Nene Branta sandvicensis recovery initiative: Research against extinction. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S153-S160.
ABSTRACT: Since 1960, about 2150 Hawaiian Geese or Nene Branta sandvicensis were reintroduced in Hawaii to supplement the remaining wild population of about 30 birds, These geese were released mostly in high mountain sanctuaries. These sites became unsuitable during prolonged drought and the few surviving birds were those which had moved away from the release sites. The geese that survived had moved to, or were released near, agricultural pasture land. About 600 Nene are currently living in the wild; numbers are declining on the island of Hawaii, stable on Maul and increasing on Kauai. Management priorities include enhancement of grasslands, predator control and maximizing genetic diversity. To enable the species to recover, management will probably have to be large scale, intensive and prolonged, Further released captive-bred or translocated Nene should have access to enhanced habitats after predators have been controlled.
KEY WORDS: SELECTION/BEHAVIOR/HABITAT
22. Blanchard, B. M. and Knight, R. R. 1995. Biological consequences of relocating grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosystem. Journal of Wildlife Management 59(3):560-565.
ABSTRACT: Relocating grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) from human/bear conflict situations has been a standard management procedure. Using data from Yellowstone National Park, we present components of situations that may affect the outcome of a relocation. Survival rates of transported bears were lower (l(x) = 0.83) (P = 0.001) than those not transported (l(x) = 0.89). Survival was largely affected by whether the bear returned to the capture site (P = 0.029). Return rate was most affected by distance transported (P = 0.012) and age-sex group (P = 0.014). Return rates decreased at distances greater than or equal to 75 km, and subadult females returned least (P = 0.050) often. Because of low survival and high return rates, transporting grizzly bears should be considered a final action to eliminate a conflict situation. However, transporting females must be considered a viable management technique because transports of some individuals have resulted in contributions to the population through successful reproduction.
KEY WORDS: grizzly bear/homing/movements/survival/relocation/transport/Ursus arctos/Wyoming/Yellowstone National Park
23. Bloxam, Q. M. C. and Tonge, S. J. 1995. Amphibians: Suitable candidates for breeding-release programmes. Biodiversity and Conservation 4(6):636-644.
ABSTRACT: Zoological parks are playing an increasingly important role in the management of threatened species through education, the maintenance of captive gene banks and the reintroduction of captive-bred animals into the wild. This paper discusses the suitability of amphibian species for reintroduction. The important features of amphibians for these programmes are highlighted, i.e., their high fecundity to allow rapid build-up of captive populations coupled with few behavioural problems with captive-bred animals, as well as the low cost of maintenance. The potential problems of inbreeding, poor retention of innate behavioural repertoires after multiple generation captive breeding, and the introduction of alien pathogens into wild populations are considered. Release programmes for two species, the Mallorcan midwife toad Alytes muletensis and the Puerto Rican crested toad Peltophryne lemur, are reviewed.
KEY WORDS: Mallorcan midwife toad/Puerto Rican crested toad/reintroduction/conservation/habitat disturbance
24. Bouman, I., Bouman, J., and Boyd, L. 1994. Reintroduction. Pages 255-263 in Boyd, L.//Houpt, K.A., eds. Przewalski'S Horse. SUNY Series in Endangered Species . State Univ New York Press.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
25. Bright, P. W. and Morris, P. A. 1994. Animal translocation for conservation: Performance of dormice in relation to release methods, origin and season. Journal of Applied Ecology 31(4):699-708.
ABSTRACT: 1. We suggest that two important hypotheses underlie the translocation of animals for conservation management, namely that performance is higher for: (i) animals acclimated to a novel site before release (soft releases), compared with those not acclimated (hard releases); and (ii) wild-caught animals compared with captive-bred animals. Despite the increased use of translocations, these hypotheses remain largely untested. 2. Before reintroductions of the dormouse Muscardinus avellanarius, experimental translocations were conducted. These examined the performance of released dormice in relation to season, release methods and animal origin (captive-bred or wild-caught). 3. Early releases (May, June) lost body mass at a significantly higher rate than late releases (August, September). This resulted from seasonal food shortage and could be reversed by supplementary feeding. All released dormice appeared not to locate some important food resources. 4. Soft releases continued to nest at their release point and utilized supplementary food. Hard releases often dispersed and ignored food provided. These differences have profound consequences for reintroductions and hypotheses to explain them are proposed. 5. Wild-caught and captive-bred dormice responded differently to pre-release pens. After release, captive-bred animals travelled significantly less far, in total and from nests, each night. This would have reduced their chances of locating natural food sources and suggests that they are slower to establish in novel habitat. 6. The experiments support the hypotheses underlying translocations and imply that there may also be a common mechanism underlying the behaviour of translocated animals.
KEY WORDS: captive-bred animals/foraging/Muscardinus avellanarius/supplementary food/wildlife conservation management/DORMOUSE MUSCARDINUS-AVELLANARIUS/NESTING-BEHAVIOR/WOODLAND/REINTRODUCTION/MOVEMENTS/SURVIVAL
26. Buerger, T. T. Mortensen S. R. Kendall R. J. Hooper M. J. 1994. Metabolism and Acute Toxicity of Methyl Parathion in Pen-Reared and Wild Northern Bobwhites. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 13(7):1139-1143.
ABSTRACT: Pesticide registration guidelines in the United States accept pen-reared northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) for acute toxicity testing and consider them representative of wild terrestrial birds. It is not known how well the various pen-reared bobwhite strains represent their wild counterpart. The metabolic activation, cholinesterase sensitivity, and toxicity of the organophosphorus insecticide methyl parathion were compared in pen-reared and wild bobwhites. Phosphorothioate insecticides such as methyl parathion are activated to their anticholinesterase oxygen analogues (oxons) by microsomal monooxygenases. Methyl paraoxon 150 values for whole-brain cholinesterase were similar (P > 0.05) for pen-reared and wild bobwhites (60.0-65.1 nM). Activation of methyl parathion to methyl paraoxon by liver microsomes was measured indirectly by inhibition of brain cholinesterase. Microsomal specific activities were similar (P > 0.05) for male and female pen-reared and wild birds (1.15-1.54 nmol min-1 mg protein-1). There were no differences (P > 0.05) in LD50 values between pen-reared (9.84 mg/kg) and wild (10.22 mg/kg) bobwhites. Brain cholinesterase was depressed 70 to 85% in nonsurvivors and 23 to 35% in survivors. Results suggest that pen-reared bobwhites are representative of wild bobwhites. However, comparisons with our previous field research demonstrate that sublethal effects seen in the lab can become lethal under natural conditions. Extrapolations from lab to field must be made cautiously.
KEY WORDS: Acute Toxicity/Cholinesterase/Colinus-Virginianus/Metabolism/Methyl Parathion/BRAIN CHOLINESTERASE ACTIVITY/INSECTICIDES/PESTICIDES/BIRDS/ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE/PREDATION/RECOVERY/ENZYMES
27. Burke, R. L. 1991. Relocations, Repatriations, and Translocations of Amphibians and Reptiles - Taking a Broader View. Herpetologica 47(3):350-357.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: CONSERVATION/TORTOISE/POPULATION/EXTINCTION/WILDLIFE/BIOLOGY
28. Cade, T. J. 1992. Hand-Reared Loggerhead Shrikes Breed in Captivity. Condor 94(4):1027-1029.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: Loggerhead Shrike/Captive Breeding/Incubation/Reintroduction/Conservation/Shrike
29. Cade, T. J. Jones C. G. 1993. Progress in Restoration of the Mauritius Kestrel. Conservation Biology 7(1):169-175.
ABSTRACT: In the 1970s, the Mauritius Kestrel (Falco punctatus) was the most endangered bird of prey in the world, at one time with only two known pairs surviving in the remnant native forest of the Black River Gorges (ca. 4,000 ha). At the end of the 1991-1992 breeding season, a minimum of 30 nesting pairs and more than 170 individuals were distributed in four separate forested areas, thanks mainly to manipulation of the reproductive potential of the wild pairs, to captive propagation, and to reintroduction (restocking). Since 1984, 139 young have been reared from 618 eggs laid by captive kestrels, and 147 from 265 wild eggs incubated and hatched in the laboratory, 235 young kestrels have been released on Mauritius by hacking and fostering Adjustments in feeding and nesting habits of kestrels backed and released outside the Black River Gorges in areas dominated by exotic vegetation and agriculture have allowed these kestrels to survive and reproduce in an array of previously unused habitats. Now that the kestrels have been released from dependence on the remnant and dying native forest, a viable population of mom than 100 nesting pairs should be achievable in a few more years.
KEY WORDS:
30. Carpenter, J. W. Gabel R. R. Goodwin J. G. 1991. Captive Breeding and Reintroduction of the Endangered Masked Bobwhite. Zoo Biology 10(6):439-449.
ABSTRACT: Efforts to restore the endangered masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi) to its former range have required 1) habitat acquisition, restoration, and preservation; 2) captive propagation; and 3) reintroduction of captive-bred stock. In its role to recover the masked bobwhite, the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) has refined captive breeding techniques; provided captive-produced stock for release; conducted field research on the distribution, limiting factors, and habitat characteristics of this species; and developed release methods. Techniques for the husbandry and captive management, breeding, artificial incubation and hatching of eggs, and rearing of young of the masked bobwhite have been developed. Successful reintroduction techniques for the masked bobwhite have included prerelease conditioning and/or cross-fostering of captive-reared masked bobwhite chicks to a wild-caught, related, vasectomized bobwhite species and their release to the wild as family units. In addition, the establishment by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in 1985 has further enhanced the potential for establishing a self-sustaining population of the masked bobwhite in the U.S. Through continued releases and active management of habitat, therefore, it is believed that the masked bobwhite can become permanently established at the refuge to ensure its continued survival in the wild.
KEY WORDS: Colinus-Virginianus-Ridgwayi/Propagation/Release/Artificial Incubation
31. Castle, M. D. Christensen B. M. 1990. Hematozoa of Wild Turkeys from the Midwestern United-States - Translocation of Wild Turkeys and Its Potential Role in the Introduction of Plasmodium-Kempi. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26(2):180-185.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
32. Chiszar, D. Murphy J. B. Smith H. M. 1993. In Search of Zoo-Academic Collaborations - A Research Agenda for the 1990's. Herpetologica 49(4):488-500.
ABSTRACT: Because zoos have added Species Survival Plans and related conservation efforts to their traditional programs, new goals have emerged along with new interests in theoretical problems. We see the decade of the 1990's as a time that zoo university collaborations must make significant progress in dealing with empirical and theoretical issues of mutual interest. It is not always obvious to both groups, however, that mutual interest exists. Consequently, we have described numerous problems that have both theoretical and applied components and that should be attractive to zoo and university herpetologists. Also, we have speculated about the combination of concepts and subdisciplines that is most likely to be successful in pursuing the husbandry, propagation, and conservation problems that must be solved in the near future. It is our hope that the zoo-university mutualisms that already exist within herpetology will grow, not only in numbers, but also in the contributions that they make to the science of herpetology and to the management of herps in captivity as well as in nature.
KEY WORDS: Amphibians/Reptiles/Zoos/Captivity/Propagation Conservation/Collaborative Research/LEARNED HELPLESSNESS/ANOLIS-CAROLINENSIS/SOCIAL-STATUS/REPTILES/TRANSLOCATION/AMPHIBIANS/LIZARD/SALAMANDERS/BEHAVIOR/STRATEGY
33. Clark, T. W. Westrum R. 1989. High-Performance Teams in Wildlife Conservation - A Species Reintroduction and Recovery Example. Environmental Management 13(6):663-670.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
34. Compton, B. B., Zager, P., and Servheen, G. 1995. Survival and mortality of translocated woodland caribou. Wildlife Society Bulletin 23(3):490-496.
ABSTRACT: We monitored survival of 60 woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus) translocated from British Columbia to the Selkirk Mountains of northern Idaho between March 1987 and February 1992. This translocation was to assist in recovery of the endangered Selkirk population. For all translocated caribou combined, estimated annual survival rates ranged from 0.65-0.94 and were consistent with declining established populations. No differences (P > 0.10) in survival were found between male and female caribou or between mountain and northern ecotypes. Causes of death included unknown (n = 14), predation (n = 7), other (n = 4), and human-caused (n = 2), with summer accounting for the greatest proportion (53%). Emigration of 7 mountain ecotype animals also was a loss to the population. Mountain lions (Felis concolor) caused most confirmed predator kills. Seasonal pattern of mortality was consistent with established populations where predation was identified as a significant factor.
KEY WORDS: caribou/mortality/Rangifer tarandus/survival/translocation/WHITE-TAILED DEER/NORTH-AMERICA/MARROW FAT/MOVEMENTS/DYNAMICS/ALBERTA
35. Cooke, A. S. and Oldham, R. S. 1995. Establishment of Populations of the Common Frog, Rana-Temporaria, and Common Toad, Bufo-Bufo, in a Newly Created Reserve Following Translocation. Herpetological Journal 5(1):173-180.
ABSTRACT: The establishment of large populations of common frogs Rana temporaria and common toads Bufo bufo was monitored for six years in a newly-created reserve, following stocking with spawn of both species and with toads rescued from a site to be destroyed. Frog spawn output reached a peak three years after the initial introduction. There was high mortality and/or emigration (64% loss) during the first year following translocation of over 5,000 adult male toads. Thereafter male mortality decreased and/or site fidelity increased: 39% loss year 2 to 3, 42% loss year 3 to 4. Comparable data were not available for the 795 females translocated, but there is no reason to believe their mortality was lower. Transfer of spawn is probably more effective as a means of establishing a new population of toads than transfer of adults. Counts of male toads peaked after three years, but delayed sexual maturity of females meant that counts of pairs and estimates of spawn output continued to increase for about six years. Age determination in a sample of 43 male toads showed that length was significantly related to age, but there were some notably disparate rates of growth. A sample of 16 females showed no correlation between age and length. The greatest recorded losses of naturally-laid spawn of both species (up to 16% in one year for the frog and 39% for the toad) were due to desiccation, presumed collection by people and fungal infestation.
KEY WORDS:
36. Cooke, A. S. and Oldham, R. S. 1995. Establishment of populations of the common frog, Rana temporaria, and common toad, Bufo bufo, in a newly created reserve following translocation (vol 5, pg 173, 1995) (Correction). Herpetological Journal 5(2):242.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
37. Cooper, M. E. 1993. Legal Implications for the Management of Infectious Disease in Captive Breeding and Reintroduction Programs. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):296-303.
ABSTRACT: Programs for the captive breeding, introduction, reintroduction, or translocation of an animal can involve a chain of events including capture, captivity, propagation, movement, veterinary diagnosis and treatment, and scientific procedures. All such activities may be subject to legislation that may be applied at international, national, regional, or local levels. It can relate inter alia to conservation, animal health, welfare and research, administration, and to human safety. The diversity of the relevant law necessitates the planning and management of programs to ensure compliance with regulatory requirements in the course of achieving scientific objectives.
KEY WORDS: Legislation/Wildlife/Permit/Import/Welfare/Safety
38. Cope, W. G. and Waller, D. L. 1995. Evaluation of freshwater mussel relocation as a conservation and management strategy. Regulated Rivers - Research & Management 11(2):147-155.
ABSTRACT: The relocation of unionacean mussels is commonly used as a conservation and management tool in large rivers and streams. Relocation has been used to recolonize areas where mussel populations have been eliminated by prior pollution events, to remove mussels from construction zones and to re-establish populations of endangered species. More recently, relocation has been used to protect native freshwater mussels from colonization by the exotic zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. We conducted a literature review of mussel relocations and evaluated their relative success as a conservation and management strategy. We found that 43% of all relocations were conducted because of construction projects that were forced to comply with the Endangered Species Act 1973 and that only 16% were monitored for five or more consecutive years. Most (43%) relocation projects were conducted from July to September, presumably a period when reproductive stress is relatively low for most species and the metabolic rate is sufficient for reburrowing in the substrate. The mortality of relocated mussels was unreported in 27% of projects; reported mortality varied widely among projects and species and was difficult to assess. The mean mortality of relocated mussels was 49% based on an average recovery rate of 43%. There is little guidance on the methods for relocation or for monitoring the subsequent long-term status of relocated mussels. Based on this evaluation, research is needed to develop criteria for selecting a suitable relocation site and to establish appropriate methods and guidelines for conducting relocation projects.
KEY WORDS: bivalves/conservation/management/mussels/relocation/river/translocation/transplant/unionidae
39. Csermely, D. and Corona, C. V. 1994. Behavior and Activity of Rehabilitated Buzzards (Buteo buteo) Released in Northern Italy. Journal of Raptor Research 28(2):100-107.
ABSTRACT: The behavior and habitat hunting of 16 rehabilitated common buzzards (Buteo buteo) released in northern Italy were analyzed. The buzzards were released individually in different seasons, and their activity was recorded continuously for at least the first 3 d after release and intermittently thereafter until they dispersed from the release site. The birds remained in the surrounding area for more than 100 d, showing a progressive acclimation to the new environment. The released buzzards interacted frequently with wild territorial conspecifics and were attacked by several species of corvids, especially the hooded crow (Corvus corone). Nevertheless, such interactions were not the direct cause of dispersal. Some birds defended a territory adjacent to or inside that of a wild buzzard. Prey capture was almost normal, although certainly underestimated. Small mammals and reptiles were most often caught. Although the area chosen for this study had high human population, this was not a major source of interference with the releases. Thus, the buzzards appeared to be able to cope with their new environment being minimally influenced by having been in captivity.
KEY WORDS: Hawks/Buteo-Buteo/Behavior/Captivity/Dispersal/Rehabilitation/Behavioral Ecology/COMMON
40. Davidson, W. R. Appel M. J. Doster G. L. Baker O. E. Brown J. F. 1992. Diseases and Parasites of Red Foxes, Gray Foxes, and Coyotes from Commercial Sources Selling to Fox-Chasing Enclosures. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 28(4):581-589.
ABSTRACT: Fifty-six red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 18 gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and 13 coyotes (Canis latrans) obtained by the South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department during an investigation of suspected illegal wildlife translocation were examined for diseases and parasites. Red foxes and coyotes were confiscated from an animal dealer based in Ohio (USA), and gray foxes were purchased from an animal dealer in Indiana (USA). Emphasis was placed on detection of pathogens representing potential health risks to native wildlife, domestic animals, or humans. All animals were negative for rabies; however, 15 gray foxes were incubating canine distemper at necropsy. Serologic tests disclosed antibodies to canine parvovirus, canine distemper virus, canine adenovirus, canine coronavirus, canine herpesvirus, and canine parainfluenza virus in one or more host species. Twenty-three species of parasites (two protozoans, three trematodes, four cestodes, eleven nematodes, and three arthropods) were found, including species with substantial pathogenic capabilities. Echinococcus multilocularis, a recognized human pathogen not enzootic in the southeastern United States, was found in red foxes. Based on this information, we conclude that the increasingly common practice of wild canid translocation for stocking fox-chasing enclosures poses potential health risks to indigenous wildlife, domestic animals, and humans and, therefore, is biologically hazardous.
KEY WORDS: Infectious Diseases/Parasitism/Echinococcus-Multilocularis/Red Fox/Vulpes-Vulpes/Gray Fox/Urocyon-Cinereoargenteus/Coyotes/Canis-Latrans/Host Translocation/ECHINOCOCCUS-MULTILOCULARIS/TRANSLOCATED RACCOONS/UNITED-STATES/RABIES/INFECTION
41. Dodd, C. K. Seigel R. A. 1991. Relocation, Repatriation, and Translocation of Amphibians and Reptiles - Are They Conservation Strategies That Work. Herpetologica 47(3):336-350.
ABSTRACT: Conservation strategies involving relocations, repatriations, and translocations (RRT) have been carried out, are underway, or are advocated for a number of endangered and threatened amphibians and reptiles. However, recent reviews of RRT projects involving birds and mammals suggest that the success rate is low and that the factors that lead to endangerment operate to impede effective RRT results. In this paper, we review available information on RRT projects involving amphibians and reptiles, examine the motives for advocating RRT strategies, and recommend biological and management criteria that should be considered prior to undertaking RRT projects. Most RRT projects involving amphibians and reptiles have not demonstrated success as conservation techniques and should not be advocated as if they are acceptable management and mitigation practices. We urge caution in accepting claims of success and urge colleagues to publish detailed methods and results of past and ongoing RRT projects.
KEY WORDS: Amphibians/Reptiles/Repatriation/Relocation/Translocation/Conservation/Management/SEX-RATIO/SPECIES CONSERVATION/POPULATION SIZES/GOPHER TORTOISE/ECOLOGY/TURTLES/SCIENCE
42. Dowling, T. E., Minckley, W. L., Marsh, P. C., and Goldstein, E. S. 1996. Mitochondrial DNA variability in the endangered razorback sucker (Xyrauchen texanus): Analysis of hatchery stocks and implications for captive propagation. Conservation Biology 10(1):120-127.
ABSTRACT: The razorback sucker (Xyrauchen texanus) is a large, long-lived catostomid fish endemic to the Colorado River drainage of western North America, endangered because of recruitment failure. Efforts to preserve the species have emphasized artificial propagation and reintroduction. Given the importance of maintaining genetic diversity in such a program we examined mitochondrial DNA diversity in a source population (Lake Mohave, Arizona-Nevada) and three hatchery-produced year classes (1987, 1989, 1990). The source contained considerable variation indicated by high haplotype diversity ((h) over cap = 0.97) and a large number of unique haplotypes (17 in 25 individuals). Diversity also was high in the 1987 ((h) over cap = 0.89, 6 haplotypes in 10 individuals) and 1989 hatchery-produced year classes ((h) over cap = 0.91, 7 in 11) but significantly, lower in the 1990 year class ((h) over cap = 0.71, 4 in 10). Low diversity in the last class was likely because of differences among females in fecundity, viability of progeny, or both. Because natural populations have collapsed throughout the species' range, toe must identify methods that preserve the most diversity. We examined three potential alternatives: standard hatchery propagation natural spawning in predator-free environments, and protective custody of larvae collected from the lake with reintroduction after-growth to a size likely to survive. The last is the preferred alternative and should be pursued as the most cost-effective option for preserving genetic diversity in the razorback sucker.
KEY WORDS: LOWER COLORADO RIVER/ARIZONA-CALIFORNIA/INHERITANCE/EVOLUTION/SYSTEMATICS/DROSOPHILA/GENETICS/BIOLOGY
43. Duvall, A. C. Schoonveld G. S. 1988. Colorado Moose - Reintroduction and Management. Alces 24: 188-194 .
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
44. Ebenhard, T. 1995. Conservation breeding as a tool for saving animal species from extinction. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10(11):438-443.
ABSTRACT: For nearly 3000 taxa of birds and mammals, conservation breeding may be the only possible way to avoid extinction. Today, less than 100 of these taxa have self-sustaining captive populations, and even fewer have been selected for reintroduction programmes. However, recent developments in our theoretical understanding of conservation breeding, as well as in its practical application, and global organization, raise hopes for the future.
KEY WORDS: CAPTIVE DROSOPHILA POPULATIONS/MODELING PROBLEMS/FOUNDER REPRESENTATION/GENETICS/REINTRODUCTION/MANAGEMENT/ADAPTATION/SIZE
45. Ellis, W. A. H. White N. A. Kunst N. D. Carrick F. N. 1990. Response of Koalas (Phascolarctos-Cinereus) to Re-Introduction to the Wild After Rehabilitation. Australian Wildlife Research 17(4):421-426.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: AUSTRALIA
46. Ellsworth, D. L., Honeycutt, R. L., Silvy, N. J., Smith, M. H., Bickham, J. W., and Klimstra, W. D. 1994. White-Tailed Deer Restoration to the Southeastern United-States - Evaluating Genetic Variation. Journal of Wildlife Management 58(4):686-697.
ABSTRACT: Protective legislation and restocking were used to restore white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to the southeastern United States (U.S.) following declines that occurred during the nineteenth century. Although stocking and protection of native herds are often key components of deer management programs, the degree to which these strategies contributed to recovery of southeastern white-tailed deer has not been determined. We used mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) restriction-site variation and allozyme diversity to characterize gene flow patterns and genetic differentiation among white-tailed deer populations in the southeastern U.S. and evaluated the effectiveness of management programs for restoring white-tailed deer to the region. Compared with white-tailed deer in northern areas of North America, deer in the southeastern U.S. exhibited a high level of mtDNA subdivision (G(ST) = 0.621) that may be attributable to site philopatry of females. Relative to mtDNA, the extent of allozyme differentiation (F(ST) = 0.153) indicated a bias in dispersal (gene flow) toward males (3:1), suggesting that managers should regulate the degree to which males are preferentially harvested to preserve the exchange of genetic information among populations. Geographic patterns of genetic variation in white-tailed deer were congruent with those in unrelated taxa, implicating the common influence of historical biogeographic events in shaping contemporary genetic structure. Similarities in geographic variation between white-tailed deer and other vertebrates inhabiting this region indicated that deer populations in the southeastern U.S. are descended from native herds and that relocated deer have contributed insignificantly to the genetic composition of extant populations.
KEY WORDS: Allozymes/Genetics/Hunting/Management/Mitochondrial DNA/Odocoileus-Virginianus/Restocking/Southeastern United-States/White-Tailed Deer/MITOCHONDRIAL-DNA/RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES/SPATIAL HETEROGENEITY/NATURAL-POPULATIONS/MULE DEER/DIFFERENTIATION/VARIABILITY/DISPERSAL
47. Elsey, R. M. Joanen T. Mcnease L. Kinler N. 1992. Growth Rates and Body Condition Factors of Alligator mississippiensis in Coastal Louisiana Wetlands - A Comparison of Wild and Farm-Released Juveniles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A - Comparative Physiology 103(4):667-672.
ABSTRACT: 1. Growth rates and body condition factors for native wild and captive-raised juvenile alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) that had been released to the wild were studied using tag-recapture methods for 274 alligators over a 4-year period. Alligators were grouped by sex, size class, source (farm-released vs native wild) and as to whether they had overwintered or not. 2. In most groups, the farm-released alligators grew significantly better than wild alligators matched for sex and size; in the remaining groups the post-release alligators grew as well as their counterparts, though not better. 3. Overwintering tended to slow growth rates in both groups, but farm-released alligators still demonstrated superior growth over native wild alligators even after overwintering. 4. Males tended to grow faster than females, though this trend was not always significantly greater. In no matched group did females grow faster than males. 5. Growth rates diminished with increasing size in native wild alligators (smaller alligators grew faster), but growth rates of farm-released alligators remained accelerated even at the larger size classes. 6. Growth curves were constructed using known recapture data with three growth models (von Bertlanffy, Gompertz and logistic); the calculated maximum attainable length and growth parameters were significantly larger (P < 0.01) for farm-released alligators than wild using all three models. 7. Body condition factors were not different in captive-raised post-released alligators than native wild alligators.
KEY WORDS: NORTHERN AUSTRALIA/AMPHIBIANS/REPTILES/TRANSLOCATION
48. Fa, J. E. 1994. Herbivore Intake Habitat Productivity Correlations Can Help Ascertain Re-Introduction Potential for the Barbary Macaque. Biodiversity and Conservation 3(4):309-317.
ABSTRACT: Re-introductions are increasingly used conservation tools. Often, criteria for re-introducing species are based on policies or politics and little attention paid, albeit theoretical, to understanding what ecological possibilities habitats may have in sustaining introduced animals. Assessing potential carrying capacities is complex but easier for grazers, since biomass of these herbivores is empirically correlated with habitat primary productivity. The case is made here that the Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus, a vulnerable North African primate with a large surplus captive stock, can be viewed as a grazer. Because of this attribute, and unlike congenerics, it is possible to estimate potential densities in extant habitats in a fashion similar to predicting stocking levels for domestic herbivores. Thus, from values of consumable primary productivity for domestic stock in Mediterranean countries and the monkey's energy requirements, attainable macaque populations in studied habitats could be much higher than actual. Though these numbers may be unreachable in nature, this study shows that present macaque populations could increase after restorative management of habitats in which re-stocking with captive-born animals may play a part. However, since only 10% of potential monkey habitat in Morocco and Algeria is occupied by the species, finding areas for releasing captive-born macaques is more advisable.
KEY WORDS: Barbary Macaques/Feeding Ecology/Primary Productivity/Re-Introduction Potential
49. Foin, T. C. Brenchleyjackson J. L. 1991. Simulation Model Evaluation of Potential Recovery of Endangered Light-Footed Clapper Rail Populations. Biological Conservation 58(2):123-148.
ABSTRACT: Conservation of the endangered light-footed clapper rail Rallus longirostris levipes is a major objective in the remaining areas of Southern California salt marsh. We used simulation modeling to determine the potential of different types of estuaries and different management strategies for increasing the size of the rail population. Analyses of existing data show that the size of breeding populations of rails is closely associated with above-ground biomass of Pacific cordgrass Spartina foliosa. A model of cordgrass was constructed to analyze the effects of salinity and soil moisture, and of the impact of various management actions, on the potential for biomass production. The model shows that keeping the salt marsh open to the sea is critically important, but that enhancing the fresh water supplied to the marsh has mixed results. The simulation model was used in conjunction with field estimates of rail density to estimate the potential for rail population recovery. These estimates show that full implementation of the recovery plan for rails is only possible if all remaining wetland area is restored to high-quality rail habitat. Our results suggest that a greater benefit to rails may result from concentrating on habitat improvement of those estuaries that have the greatest potential for Spartina production rather than the dispersion of expenditures upon all existing wetlands, many of which may have limited potential for rail population expansion.
KEY WORDS: SALICORNIA-VIRGINICA L/SPARTINA-FOLIOSA TRIN/SAN-FRANCISCO BAY/SALT MARSHES/MOVEMENTS/PATTERNS/SALINITY/ECOTONE
50. Fox, J. L. Nurbu C. Chundawat R. S. 1991. Tibetan Argali (Ovis-Ammon-Hodgsoni) Establish a New Population. Mammalia 55(3):448-452.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
51. Franklin, J. Steadman D. W. 1991. The Potential for Conservation of Polynesian Birds Through Habitat Mapping and Species Translocation. Conservation Biology 5(4):506-521.
ABSTRACT: During the past several millennia, hundreds if not thousands of Polynesian land bird populations have been reduced or eliminated by human activities-direct predation, habitat alteration, and introduction of predators and pathogens. Many of the surviving populations and species of Polynesian land birds, particularly pigeons, doves, parrots, kingfishers, and passerines, are likely to become extinct within the next few decades unless we intervene to save them. One strategy is to translocate species onto previously occupied islands, if the habitat is suitable and current human activities are compatible. In this study we evaluate a procedure for analyzing terrestrial habitats in a geographical information system (GIS) using aerial photographs, satellite imagery, topographic maps, and thematic maps. In the relatively simple island ecosystems of Atiu and Mitiaro (southern Cook Islands), mapping land cover and evaluating habitat suitability of land birds is straightforward; measures of the shape and spatial relationships of land cover patches are of limited value. Although the rate of land cover disturbance by people has not increased in recent times, even small disturbances can eliminate a significant proportion of preferred habitat for land birds. We suggest that, whenever possible, translocation efforts should focus on islands uninhabited by humans. The potential for successful translocation in the Cook Islands is limited to a few species. In Tonga, where more species of birds have been extirpated and where there are more uninhabited islands, the potential to reestablish viable land bird populations is much greater.
KEY WORDS:
52. Garson, P. J. Young L. Kaul R. 1992. Ecology and Conservation of the Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii - Studies in the Wild and the Progress of a Reintroduction Project. Biological Conservation 59(1):25-35.
ABSTRACT: The cheer pheasant Catreus wallichii is an endangered species frequenting open habitats in the Himalayan foothills of Pakistan, India and Nepal. Part of this paper describes how early successional habitats used by cheer at one intensively studied site are maintained by a traditional form of scrub clearance and single-season crop growing on a long rotation, together with seasonal grazing. A review of the habitat characteristics and land-use patterns at a series of other present-day cheer sites reveals that, with the exception of a few small refuges, all component habitats are heavily disturbed. The history of a continuing reintroduction attempt for cheer in the Margalla Hills National Park in Pakistan is then reviewed in the light of these findings. We conclude that habitat management involving the rotational burning of a dense successional scrub is necessary if the released population is to have any prospects of becoming self-sustaining. A similar type of management needs to be maintained at sites still holding wild cheer in India and Nepal.
KEY WORDS: SURVIVAL
53. Gordon, D. R. 1994. Translocation of Species into Conservation Areas - A Key for Natural Resource Managers. Natural Areas Journal 14(1):31-37.
ABSTRACT: Few guidelines address the considerations and criteria necessary for judging the appropriateness of translocating species onto designated conservation areas. This paper presents a dichotomous key that will assist natural resource decision-makers in assessing the biological and genetic needs and impacts of introducing, reintroducing, or augmenting species. I argue that each translocation decision should be well documented prior to action in a format that includes current and proposed site management information, consideration of the factors addressed in the key, and monitoring of translocated individuals or populations. Although translocation should not be viewed as an alternative to in situ conservation of species, this tactic may be necessary for conservation of species or processes in natural areas.
KEY WORDS:
54. Griffith, B. Scott J. M. Carpenter J. W. Reed C. 1993. Animal Translocations and Potential Disease Transmission. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):231-236.
ABSTRACT: A survey of terrestrial vertebrate translocations, 1973-1986, from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the USA was analyzed to determine the geographical distribution and relative frequency of translocation methods that had disease transmission implications. Contemporary translocations likely exceed 700 per year. More than 50% of surveyed agencies translocated some species each year. On average, 26% of translocations released captive-reared animals, 29% of releases were to areas on the periphery or outside of historic species ranges, only 32% were soft releases that provided opportunity for postrelease monitoring, and, in 24% of translocations, there was no professional examination of animals for parasites, disease, or injury prior to release. There were differences among countries and among regions in the USA in these characteristics of translocations but no differences among countries or regions in translocation success. Adequate assessment of the effect of disease on translocation success will require multivariate analyses. These analyses will require more complete documentation of disease-related properties of translocations than is currently available.
KEY WORDS: Translocation/Reintroduction/Disease/Threatened Species/Endangered Species/Geography
55. Haig, S. M. Ballou J. D. Derrickson S. R. 1990. Management Options for Preserving Genetic Diversity - Reintroduction of Guam Rails to the Wild. Conservation Biology 4(3):290-300.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
56. Hamann, O. 1993. On Vegetation Recovery, Goats and Giant Tortoises on Pinta Island, Galapagos, Ecuador. Biodiversity and Conservation 2(2):138-151.
ABSTRACT: Data on vegetational changes on Pinta Island. Galapagos, collected during the period 1970-1988, show that feral goats have had a destructive impact on the vegetation. Stands of Scalesia baurii ssp. hopkinsii (Asteraceae) and Opuntia galapageia var. galapageia (Cactaceae) were close to a complete collapse, while stands of Bursera graveolens (Burseraceae) apparently were able to persist for a longer time. After the elimination of large numbers of goats, Scalesia, Opuntia and Bursera were recovering rapidly, but the patterns of regeneration differed in accordance with differences in longevity, growth and seedling establishment. It is suggested that the absence of herbivores (the Pinta subspecies of giant tortoise is practically extinct, and feral goats were finally eradicated in 1990) in the long term may lead to decreased diversity in the vegetation of Pinta. As a management experiment aimed at conserving the biological diversity of Pinta, it is proposed to reintroduce giant tortoises to the island, preceded and accompanied by a careful long-term monitoring of vegetational changes.
KEY WORDS: Galapagos/Pinta Island/Regeneration of Woody Plants/Feral Goats/Giant Tortoises/Ecological Diversity
57. Hawkins, L. K. Cranford J. A. 1992. Long-Term Effects of Intraspecific and Interspecific Cross-Fostering on 2 Species of Peromyscus. Journal of Mammalogy 73(4):802-807.
ABSTRACT: Reproduction, parental behavior, offspring survivorship, physical development, and growth were studied in Peromyscus that had been reared by foster parents of the same or a closely related species. Neither type of cross-fostering had any effect in P. leucopus. Interspecifically cross-fostered P. maniculatus exhibited severely depressed reproductive success, while intraspecific cross-fostering had little effect. Parental behavior was apparently unaffected by cross-fostering in both species. Sex-related differences in response to interspecific cross-fostering occurred in both species, with males more negatively affected than females.
KEY WORDS: Peromyscus/Parental Behavior/Reproduction/Survivorship
58. Hearne, J. W. Swart J. 1991. Optimal Translocation Strategies for Saving the Black Rhino. Ecological Modelling 59(3-4):279-292.
ABSTRACT: Over the past 30 years the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) populations in Africa have dwindled dramatically. To enhance the survival prospects of the species, a national conservation strategy has been developed in South Africa. Its main goal is to formulate and implement policies to increase the southern African rhino population as rapidly as possible. This involves translocating animals from areas where the population is approaching the ecological carrying capacity and establishing new viable populations in other suitable reserves. A non-linear differential equation model for a population of black rhino was developed. The model is used with a combination of analytical and numerical techniques to investigate a number of issues relating to the translocation of rhino from well-stocked, high-density areas to low-density areas with small herds or no herds. Firstly, the model is used to determine the maximum sustainable yield from the well-stocked reserves. The model is then applied to a newly established population to determine optimal import policies. Finally, the model is extended to include both an established exporting population and a new understocked importing population. Simulations are performed to give an indication of the number and age of animals which should be translocated to maximise the growth rate of the total rhino population in southern Africa.
KEY WORDS:
59. Hedrick, P. W. 1995. Gene flow and genetic restoration: The Florida panther as a case study. Conservation Biolog 9(5):996-1007.
ABSTRACT: Populations of some endangered species have become so small that they have lost genetic variation and appear to have become fixed for deleterious genetic variants. To avoid extinction from this genetic deterioration individuals from related subspecies or populations may have to be introduced for genetic restoration i.e., elimination of deleterious variants and recovery to a normal level of genetic variation. I construct a general population genetics framework from which to evaluate the potential for genetic restoration, and I discuss its specific application to the Florida panther. The translocation of Texas cougars into the free-ranging Florida panther population has been recommended to genetically restore the Florida panther a subspecies of Felis concolor that appears to have both a low level of genetic variation and low fitness. Specific recommendations recently given by a scientific panel are to introduce enough animals so that there is approximately 20% gene pow in the first generation of translocation and approximately 2-4% in the generations thereafter. I evaluated these recommendations in a theoretical population genetics framework and found that they should result in the removal of most detrimental genetic variation and an increase in the standing genetic variation without a high probability of loss of any adaptive Florida panther alleles. Unless the population of the free-ranging Florida panthers is very small, the planned translocation should result in genetic restoration of the Florida panther.
KEY WORDS: DROSOPHILA POPULATIONS/CANINE CRYPTORCHIDISM/CONSERVATION GENETICS/FITNESS
60. Heggberget, T. M. 1991. Establishment of Breeding Populations and Population Development in the Canada Goose Branta-Canadensis in Norway. Ardea 79(2):364-370.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
61. Hobson, D. P. Proulx G. Dew B. L. 1989. Initial Post-Release Behavior of Marten, Martes-Americana, Introduced in Cypress-Hills-Provincial-Park, Saskatchewan. Canadian Field-Naturalist 103(3):398-400.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
62. Holler, N. R. Mason D. W. Dawson R. M. Simons T. Wooten M. C. 1989. Reestablishment of the Perdido Key Beach Mouse (Peromyscus-Polionotus-Trissyllepsis) on Gulf Islands National Seashore. Conservation Biology 3(4):397-404.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
63. Holroyd, G. L. Banasch U. 1990. The Reintroduction of the Peregrine Falcon, Falco-Peregrinus-Anatum, into Southern Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 104(2):203-208.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
64. Horwich, R. H. 1989. Use of Surrogate Parental Models and Age Periods in a Successful Release of Hand-Reared Sandhill Cranes. Zoo Biology 8(4):379-390.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
65. Hutchins, M., Sheppard, C., Lyles, A. M., and Casadei, G. 1995. Behavioral considerations in the captive management, propagation, and reintroduction of endangered birds. Pages 263-289 in Gibbons, E.F.//Durrant, B.S.//Demarest, J., eds., Conservation of Endangered Species in Captivity. SUNY Series in Endangered Species, State Univ New York Press, Albany.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
66. Jackson, L. L. 1992. The Role of Ecological Restoration in Conservation Biology. Pages 433-451 in Fiedler, P. L., Jain, S. K., eds. Conservation Biology : the Theory and Practice of Nature Conservation, Preservation and Management. Routledge Chapman & Hall Inc, New York.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
67. Jackson, L. L., Lopoukhine, N., and Hillyard, D. 1995. Ecological restoration: A definition and comments - Commentary. Restoration Ecology 3(2):71-75.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
68. Jacobson, E. R. 1993. Implications of Infectious Diseases for Captive Propagation and Introduction Programs of Threatened Endangered Reptiles. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):245-255.
ABSTRACT: Health and disease are becoming extremely relevant issues for the conservation biology of members of all major groups of vertebrates. The importance of disease in captive propagation, relocation, repatriation, and translocation (RRT) programs is just being appreciated. All of us experience multiple diseases in our lifetimes. Reptiles are not different. They are susceptible to the range of infectious agents known to occur in other vertebrates. The causes of disease in captive reptiles are better understood than those in their wild counterparts. However, several important diseases have recently been documented in wild chelonians. One of these, upper respiratory tract disease in the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) is thought to have been introduced into populations of tortoises in the Mojave Desert in the southwestern USA by release of ill captive desert tortoises. A similar situation appears to exist for certain populations of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) in Florida, USA. Although conservation strategies such as RRT programs have been implemented for a number of threatened/endangered reptiles, results indicate that the success rate is rather low. Because of this low success rate and the recent awareness of the possible introduction of exotic pathogens acquired in captivity, release programs should be scrutinized more closely.
KEY WORDS: Infectious Disease/Propagation/Release/Reptiles/HERPESVIRUS-LIKE INFECTION/DESERT TORTOISES/TESTUDO-GRAECA/CRYPTOSPORIDIUM/COLLECTION/TURTLES/SNAKES/VIRUS/WILD
69. Jones, C. G., Heck, W., Lewis, R. E., Mungroo, Y., Slade, G., and Cade, T. 1995. The restoration of the Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus population. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S173-S180.
ABSTRACT: By 1974, the Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus had declined to only four known wild birds, including one breeding pair, as a result of habitat loss and pesticide contamination. A conservation project begun in 1973 has used many management techniques including captive breeding, supplemental feeding of wild birds, provision of nestboxes, multiple clutching, egg pulling, artificial incubation, hand rearing and release of captive-bred and captive-reared birds by hacking, fostering and predator control. A total of 331 kestrels were released in the 10 years up to the end of the 1993-1994 breeding season; one-third of these were captive bred, the rest were derived from eggs harvested from the wild. About 257 (78%) released birds survived to independence and 61% of independent juveniles survived their first winter. Although at least 71% of ringed birds attempted to breed in their first year, only 38% of the nests of first-year females successfully fledged young, averaging 1.7 per successful nest. Older females fledged young from 64% of nests, fledging an average of 2.0 per successful nest. The breeding success of hacked birds was similar to that of parent-raised kestrels, though the clutches of hacked birds tended to be larger. Annual replacement of birds holding territories averaged 17% for both sexes. By the 1993-1994 season, an estimated 56-68 pairs had established territories in the wild with a postbreeding population, including floating birds and independent young, of 222-286, Most of the kestrels were in three sub-populations, two of which were derived entirely from released birds, Mauritius Kestrels are relatively sedentary; 89% of ringed birds found nesting were less than 5 km from their release or fledging site. Since the pesticides responsible for their decline are no longer used, the number of Mauritius Kestrels should continue to rise through natural recruitment. The distribution of suitable habitat suggests that an eventual population of 500-600 kestrels on Mauritius is possible. Due to its outstanding success, the release programme for the Mauritius Kestrel ended after the 1993-1994 breeding season,
KEY WORDS: CAPTIVE AMERICAN KESTRELS
70. Jones, J. M. Witham J. H. 1990. Post-Translocation Survival and Movements of Metropolitan White-Tailed Deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18(4):434-441.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
71. Karesh, W. B. 1993. Cost Evaluation of Infectious Disease Monitoring and Screening Programs for Wildlife Translocation and Reintroduction. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):291-295.
ABSTRACT: Little information is available on the actual costs incurred in identifying and monitoring the infectious disease status of wildlife intended for translocation and reintroduction. Accurate cost estimates of translocation and reintroduction programs are essential to make decisions concerning planning and implementation processes. Postproject analysis of costs and effectiveness will provide the objective data needed by organizations when planning similar projects or determining future funding requirements. A simple, systematic, and comprehensive cost accounting method for projects is presented.
KEY WORDS: Reintroduction/Translocation/Disease/Veterinary/Cost/Economics
72. Kock, M. D. Dutoit R. Kock N. Morton D. Foggin C. Paul B. 1990. Effects of Capture and Translocation on Biological Parameters in Free-Ranging Black Rhinoceroses (Diceros-Bicornis) in Zimbabwe. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 21(4):414-424.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: SHEEP OVIS-CANADENSIS/PLASMA-CORTISOL/STRESS
73. Kuehler, C. Kuhn M. Mcilraith B. Campbell G. 1994. Artificial Incubation and Hand-Rearing of Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) Eggs Removed from the Wild. Zoo Biology 13(3):257-266.
ABSTRACT: The wild 'Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) population has been declining for many years, and only a few pairs of birds are currently reproductively active on the island of Hawaii. A recovery program was initiated in 1993 which included removing eggs from wild nesting birds for artificial rearing and reintroduction. This paper describes the artificial incubation and hand-rearing techniques. Eleven eggs were removed from three nesting pairs; eight were fertile, and seven hatched and were hand-reared (fertility, 72.7%; hatchability, 87.5%; survivability, 100%). Eggs were incubated in a forced-air incubator at 99.5-degrees-F (dry bulb), 80.0-86.0-degrees-F (wet bulb), and hatched under still-air conditions at 99.0-degrees-F (dry bulb) and 88.0-90-degrees-F (wet bulb). Hatched chicks were hand-fed a diet of fruit, insects, and mouse pups. (C) 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Corvidae/Conservation/Artificial Incubation/Hand-Rearing/Reintroduction
74. Leberg, P. L. 1993. Strategies for Population Reintroduction - Effects of Genetic Variability on Population Growth and Size. Conservation Biology 7(1):194-199.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
75. Leberg, P. L., Stangel, P. W., Hillestad, H. O., Marchinton, R. L., and Smith, M. H. 1994. Genetic Structure of Reintroduced Wild Turkey and White-Tailed Deer Populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 58(4):698-711.
ABSTRACT: Although reintroductions are an important management tool, little is known about their effects on the genetic structure of wildlife species. We studied wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations from the eastern United States to determine if the genetic similarity of populations was more affected by geographic proximity or by possible gene flow resulting from reintroduction programs. We examined allele frequencies at 5 polymorphic loci for turkeys from 22 locations and at 15 polymorphic loci for deer from 21 locations and compared genetic distances among populations for both species to geographic distances and reintroduction histories. For both species, genetic distances were smaller between pairs of populations that either had individuals transferred between them or that had both received individuals from a common source population than were distances between pairs of populations that had not been connected by reintroductions (P < 0.001). Geographic proximity of populations of both turkeys and deer was not associated with genetic similarity (P = 0.280 and 0.520, respectively). Reintroductions may have obscured genetic patterns resulting from other evolutionary processes such as gene flow through dispersal. Additionally, post-reintroduction dispersal has not erased the genetic contributions of reintroduced individuals to the populations they established. Reintroduction programs should attempt to create populations with high levels of genetic diversity and avoid unnecessary disruption of the evolutionary relationships among populations of a species.
KEY WORDS: Allozyme Electrophoresis/Genetic Variability/Meleagris-Gallopavo/Odocoileus-Virginianus/Reintroductions/White-Tailed Deer/Wild Turkey/VARIABILITY/CONSERVATION/BOTTLENECKS/MANAGEMENT/DIVERSITY/DISTANCE
76. Lloyd, B. D. Powlesland R. G. 1994. The Decline of Kakapo Strigops habroptilus and Attempts at Conservation by Translocation. Biological Conservation 69(1):75-85.
ABSTRACT: The kakapo Strigops habroptilus is a large, flightless, nocturnal parrot, endemic to New Zealand. Once abundant throughout New Zealand approximately 50 individuals now remain. In situ conservation of natural populations has proved impracticable, and recent conservation efforts have concentrated on establishing safe populations by translocating wild-caught kakapo to offshore islands without significant predators. The translocation method, developed to minimise transit time, was to attach radio-transmitters to free-living kakapo, recapture the radio-tagged birds for transfer when air transport was available and liberate them immediately upon arrival at the island. Between 1974 and 1992 65 kakapo were translocated to four of New Zealand's offshore islands (Maud, Little Barrier, Codfish, and Mana). Few, if any, kakapo now remain within their former range. Regular monitoring and intensive management of the translocated populations is being undertaken. Between 63 and 85% of translocated kakapo have survived but thus far productivity has been low, only two young having survived to independence.
KEY WORDS: New-Zealand/Kakapo/Translocation/Conservation/NEW-ZEALAND/ISLAND
77. Macdonald, D. W., Tattersall, F. H., Brown, E. D., and Balharry, D. 1995. Reintroducing the European beaver to Britain: Nostalgic meddling or restoring biodiversity? Mammal Review 25(4):161-200.
ABSTRACT: The European Beaver Castor fiber once occurred throughout Europe, but in many countries was exterminated or greatly reduced by over-hunting. In the UK, Beavers were last recorded in Scotland in the sixteenth century. Thirteen countries have carried out reintroduction programmes to restore the range of the Beaver in Europe, We provide a basis for discussing the feasibility and desirability of reintroducing the Beaver to Britain. The basic biology of the Beaver is described, followed by summaries of reintroductions in Europe and an evaluation of their successes and failures. We address the fundamental questions of propagule size, habitat requirements, habitat size and provenance of Beavers to be released, before examining in theory whether reintroducing Beavers to Britain is likely to fulfil UKCINC and IUCN criteria relating to environmental impact, socioeconomics and conservation. We then make suggestions as to how a reintroduction to Britain could proceed. Essential work outstanding includes site assessment and public consultation. The restoration of the Beaver to Britain could be a fitting start to the millennium.
KEY WORDS: POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS/CASTOR-CANADENSIS/DENSITY/STREAMS
78. Macmillan, S. 1995. Restoration of an extirpated red-sided garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis population in the Interlake region of Manitoba, Canada. Biological Conservation 72(1):13-16.
ABSTRACT: Red-sided garter snakes Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis were relocated to an extirpated hibernaculum infall 1985 to evaluate the use of transplants as a means of restoring snake populations in the Interlake region of Manitoba. In spring 1986, 84 of 720 transplanted snakes were recaptured at the den, substantiating the use of the den over winter. In fall 1986, only one transplanted snake was captured. It is not clear whether transplanted snakes returned in fall 1986 because sampling was disrupted by commercial snake harvesting. This prevented a good appraisal of transplant effectiveness. However, annual population censuses 3 years after the initial transplant indicated that a population of several hundred snakes was utilizing this den as a hibernaculum. Indeed, population numbers appeared to be increasing.
KEY WORDS: red-sided garter snake/Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis/population/restoration/transplantation/RELOCATION/AMPHIBIANS/REPTILES
79. Maguire, L. A. Servheen C. 1992. Integrating Biological and Sociological Concerns in Endangered Species Management - Augmentation of Grizzly Bear Populations. Conservation Biology 6(3):426-434.
ABSTRACT: To help the recovery of a remnant grizzly (Ursus arctos horribilis) population in the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem in northwestern Montana, wildlife managers have proposed augmenting the population with bears translocated from a larger population. This proposal has raised fears that translocated bears might endanger human lives and livelihoods. To reconcile the biological needs of this grizzly population with the socioeconomic needs of the human population, we used a combination of decision analysis, consensus of expert opinion, and tradeoff analysis to design a pilot scale augmentation program to enhance grizzly viability while minimizing bear-human conflicts. The analysis incorporated objective and subjective information on the movements, behavior and reproductive potential of different age-sex classes elicited from a group of experts on grizzly biology and management This information was used to rank the different age-sex classes according to three criteria retention of translocated bears in the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem, conflict with human activities, and relative contribution to grizzly population growth. Subadult females were high in reproductive contribution and moderate in conflict, adult females were moderate in reproductive contribution and low in conflict, adult males were low in reproductive contribution and low in conflict, and subadult males were very low in reproductive contribution and high in conflict These rankings were insensitive to minor changes in the expert judgments used in the analysis. Because the goals of maximizing population growth and minimizing conflict could not be met with any age-sex class, we used tradeoff analysis to establish minimum thresholds for retention and maximum thresholds for conflict and to characterize the experts' preferences among different combinations of reproductive contribution and conflict. A reranking of the age-sex classes based on the tradeoff analysis showed that 4- to 8-year-old females were most preferred. The analysis revealed that no more than one out of three translocated bears was likely to remain within the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem and that as many as one out of four might seriously conflict with human activities. These results prompted an intensive public education program to muster support for the augmentation program before any translocations were attempted.
KEY WORDS:
80. Male, B. 1995. Recovery action for threatened species - An Australian perspective. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S204-S208.
ABSTRACT: The history, scope and nature of threats facing endangered and vulnerable species in Australia are reviewed, The Australian Endangered Species Programme was established in July 1989 to address these problems, The planned approach adopted by this programme, including action plans, recovery plans, amelioration of threatening processes and education and public awareness campaigns, is described and explained. Example recovery actions for two threatened Australian birds (Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster and Noisy Scrub-bird Atrichomis clamosis) are outlined.
KEY WORDS:
81. Malik, I. and Johnson, R. L. 1994. Commensal Rhesus in India - The Need and Cost of Translocation. Revue D Ecologie - La Terre et La Vie 49(3):233-243.
ABSTRACT: Two translocations of commensal rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) subgroups were undertaken in India as a conservation measure. In August 1989, a total of 21 animals were transported from Tughlaqabad, a site located on the southeastern outskirts of New Delhi, to Meetha Pur, a rural area about 10 km distant. In February 1990, 13 rhesus were taken from Phari Dheeraj, a crowded residential area in Old Delhi, and released at Lal Kuan, a public parkland located near the border of the State of Haryana. On a per-animal basis, the cost of translocating these 34 monkeys was 70 % less than that realized during a previous relocation of Indian rhesus conducted in 1984. The rhesus is not endangered in India, but does occupy a vulnerable position given that (1) its numbers are much reduced relative to what they were 30 years ago, and (2) it is strongly commensal and capable of causing considerable damage to crops and other property. The utility of translocation in the conservation of India's remaining rhesus is discussed in the light of the results of the Tughlaqabad and Phari Dheeraj efforts. It is concluded that, while the cost per animal could be cut further by practicing the relocation of commensal rhesus on a larger scale, the use of translocation on a nation-wide basis will probably remain prohibitively expensive in India, a country with limited financial resources.
KEY WORDS: MONKEY POPULATIONS
82. Mansur, L. M. Hadder K. M. Suarez J. C. 1990. A Computer Program for Calculating the Population Size Necessary to Recover Any Number of Individuals Exhibiting a Trait. Journal of Heredity 81(5):407-408.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
83. Martin, C. M. 1995. Recovering endangered species and restoring ecosystems: Conservation planning for the twenty-first century in the United States. Ibis 137(Suppl. 1):S198-S203.
ABSTRACT: The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, is one of the most significant pieces of conservation legislation ever passed in the United States. The passage of this act spawned the creation of the Endangered Species Program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Under the Act, the USFWS has responsibility for implementing many provisions of the Act: listings, consultations, enforcement of prohibitions and recovery planning, Recovering threatened and endangered species, as well as other declining species yet. to be listed, is accomplished through many of the activities that occur under the auspices of the Act, not only through the formal recovery planning process. The Act is fundamentally an instrument for ecosystem conservation, although this aspect of the Act is often overlooked, Planning and implementing an ecosystem approach to conservation activities is a priority for the USFWS, not only for threatened and endangered species but for all wildlife, The recent emphasis on regional habitat conservation planning and the development of regional and multi-species recovery plans are indicative of the priority placed on sound ecosystem conservation planning. All of these processes are implemented with the participation of the potentially affected communities and state wildlife management agencies through a public review process. State conservation agencies are part of the process through a special grant programme.
KEY WORDS:
84. Massot, M. Clobert J. Lecomte J. Barbault R. 1994. Incumbent Advantage in Common Lizards and Their Colonizing Ability. Journal of Animal Ecology 63(2):431-440.
ABSTRACT: 1. Settlement in a new environment is a key phase in effective dispersal. We investigated this phase in the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara Jacquin) by an experimental introduction of known individuals. 2. Introducing lizards in an already occupied environment revealed a prior-residence advantage and some differences in the ability of individuals to face a new environment under conditions of high intraspecific competition. 3. Transplanted individuals (TI) died in larger numbers than resident ones (RI) immediately after the introduction, except for juveniles. this prior-residence advantage could arise from the difference of familiarity with the local environment or from a dominant behaviour of RI on TI. 4. TI which survived the first winter after the introduction survived better than RI afterwards. However, surviving TI females paid a cost in their reproduction. 5. Surviving TI were not a random subset of the initial sample: smaller adult males and leaner adult females were selected. These selective responses arose from the transplantation since they were not observed in non-manipulated populations. 6. A comparison of characteristics between natural transient or immigrant individuals and TI survivors revealed: (i) TI male and yearling survivors may have been transients or immigrants in their site of origin; (ii) TI adult female survivors were not transients nor immigrants in their site of origin. The latter result questions the use of introduction experiments to test dispersal ability. Strictly. introduction experiments only test settlement ability.
KEY WORDS: Dispersal/Introduction Experiment/Lacerta-Vivipara/Prior-Residence Advantage/Settlement Ability/DARK-EYED JUNCOS/LACERTA-VIVIPARA/PRIOR-RESIDENCE/REPRODUCTIVE EFFORT/SURVIVAL RATE/TREE LIZARDS/DOMINANCE/POPULATIONS/SIZE/SEX
85. Matsuda, H. and Akamine, T. 1994. Simultaneous Estimation of Mortality and Dispersal Rates of an Artificially Released Population. Researches on Population Ecology 36(1):73-78.
ABSTRACT: Mark-recapture methods cannot estimate both mortality and dispersal rates of a wild population simultaneously. However, when an artificially cultured population is released into an area, the initial population size and the initial population distribution are usually known. If artificially cultured individuals are released with marks or distinguished from wild individuals or if no wild individual exists in the study area, we can estimate both the mortality and dispersal rates of the artificial population. The numbers of dispersed and dead individuals are estimated from the dispersal rate from the diffusion model and the total decreasing rate estimated from a mark-recapture data. We can estimate both the time-dependent and time-dependent dispersal rates from the data. We choose the best fit model that has the smallest value of Akaike's Information Criteria. We also consider ''concentric circles approximation'' of spatial distribution, in which the cumulative and frequency distributions are analytically obtained.
KEY WORDS: Maximum Likelihood Method/Diffusion Equation/Random Dispersal/Mark-Recapture Method/Akaike Information Criteria/ESTIMATING ANIMAL ABUNDANCE
86. Mccallum, H., Timmers, P., and Hoyle, S. 1995. Modelling the impact of predation on reintroductions of bridled nailtail wallabies. Wildlife Research 22(2):163-171.
ABSTRACT: Predation by introduced foxes and cars is generally thought to be the main reason for the poor success rate of macropod reintroductions on the Australian mainland. Predator-prey theory suggests that predation may have particularly severe impacts on very small populations, especially if a more common primary prey species is present (such as the rabbit). Thus, a sufficiently large reintroduction may overcome predation and succeed where a smaller one would fail. The minimum viable population would, however, be much larger than that predicted by standard population-viability analysis. We use a simple stochastic model based upon the bridled nailtail wallaby to explore this possibility. Even very small amounts of predation (2-4 individuals per six months) can be sufficient to cause reintroductions of up to 50 animals to fail. No clear threshold population size beyond which reintroductions will succeed is evident and, for a given mean, the probability distribution of predation has a very limited impact on the success of reintroductions. In almost all circumstances, a single reintroduction of a given size is preferable to multiple reintroductions of the same total number of individuals.
KEY WORDS: POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS/AUSTRALIA/KANGAROOS/DYNAMICS/RED
87. Mech, L. D. 1995. The Challenge and Opportunity of Recovering Wolf Populations. Conservation Biology 9(2):270-278.
ABSTRACT: The gray wolf once inhabited a wide variety of habitats throughout most of the northern hemisphere north of 20-degrees-N latitude. Because the animal preyed on livestock and competed with humans for wild prey, it was extirpated from much of its range outside of wilderness areas. Environmental awareness in the late 1960s brought for the wolf legal protection, increased research, and favorable media coverage. The species has increased in both Europe and North America, is beginning to reoccupy semiwilderness and agricultural land, and is causing increased damage to livestock. Because of the wolf's high reproductive rate and long dispersal tendencies, the animal can recolonize many more areas. In most such areas control will be necessary, but the same public sentiments that promoted wolf recovery reject control. If wolf advocates could accept control by the public rather than by the government, wolves could live in far more places. Insistence on government control discourages some officials and government agencies from promoting recovery. The use of large- or small-scale zoning for wolf management may help resolve the issue. Public education is probably the most effective way to minimize the problem and maximize wolf recovery, but the effort must begin immediately.
KEY WORDS: CANIS-LUPUS/NORTHEASTERN MINNESOTA/WOLVES/DISPERSAL
88. Meier, A. J. Noble R. E. Zwank P. J. 1990. Criteria for the Introduction of the St Croix Ground Lizard. Pages 154-156 in Mitchell, R. S., Sheviak, C. J., Leopold, D. J., eds. Ecosystem Management : Rare Species and Significant Habits. New York State Museum, Univ State New York/State Educ Dept/Albany/NY 12230.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
89. Meltzer, D. G. A. 1993. Historical Survey of Disease Problems in Wildlife Populations - Southern Africa Mammals. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):237-244.
ABSTRACT: The impact of some diseases on the translocation of African wildlife has been wide-spread. Rinderpest has remained in Africa since its introduction in 1888. The rigid control measures adopted to prevent the spread of rinderpest. foot-and-mouth disease, and theileriosis to domestic animals in Africa restrict the possible translocation of even endangered species. In some cases, the translocation of wild animals has resulted in the transmission of the disease. African horse sickness was carried to Spain in 1987 when zebras were translocated there from Namibia. When springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) were moved to the Bontebok National Park, Republic of South Africa (RSA), they introduced lungworm (Bronchonema magna), which then infested the bontebok (Damaliscus dorcas dorcas). Translocated wild animals also succumb to endemic disease: heartwater in the Transvaal bushveld prevents the translocation of springbok into this area because this species is susceptible to this disease, and babesiosis has been reported in naive sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) imported into the RSA from Europe. Animals translocated into unsuitable habitats, e.g., roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) translocated to the Percy Fyfe Nature Reserve, RSA, and gemsbok (Oryx gazella) translocated to the Orange Free State, RSA, do not thrive. Salmonellosis, apparently acquired while being held in enclosures, has been reported in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and a black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Feline infectious peritonitis has been described in captive wild-caught cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).
KEY WORDS: Historic Review/African Wildlife/Translocation/Disease Transmission/Disease Impact/RINDERPEST/OUTBREAK/NIGERIA
90. Melvin, S. M. Griffin C. R. Macivor L. H. 1991. Recovery Strategies for Piping Plovers in Managed Coastal Landscapes. Coastal Management 19(1):21-34.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
91. Meyers, J. M. Miller D. L. 1992. Post-Release Activity of Captive-Reared and Wild-Reared Bald Eagles. Journal of Wildlife Management 56(4):744-749.
ABSTRACT: Rearing methods may affect behavior of bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) hacked back to the wild and may reduce successful releases and restoration of a population. Thus, we compared dispersal time and age, habitat use, site tenacity, sightings, and returns for captive- (n = 12) and wild-reared (n = 10) bald eagles after release and fledging from a hacking tower in northeastern Alabama. Captive- (92.2%) and wild-reared (92.5%) bald eagles were radio-located (n = 549) in predominately forest/wetland edges. Eagles moved 0.8-1.3 km away from the release tower during the first week. Captive-reared bald eagles returned closer (P < 0.01) to the tower during the second and third weeks after release than wild-reared birds. By the fifth week after release, both groups moved away from the tower. Weekly dispersal rates were similar between groups except during the second week after release when 5 of 10 wild-reared eagles left the area (> 25 km), A higher rate of return (P < 0.05) to the tower, a longer time (P < 0.05) in the backing tower after release and before fledging, and a larger number of locations on or near the tower (61.6% vs. 31.9%, P < 0.01) after release for captive-reared eagles suggests they had stronger site tenacity (imprinting) to the hacking tower. Captive-reared eagles also dispersed at the same age as eagles raised at wild nests. Our data suggest that release of captive-reared eagles raised without adult eagles is appropriate when translocation of young birds is not feasible or biologically sound.
KEY WORDS:
92. Miller, B. K. 1990. Factors Affecting Survival of Transplanted Eastern Wild Turkeys in Indiana. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18(1):65-70.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
93. Miller, B. Reading R. Conway C. Jackson J. A. Hutchins M. Snyder N. Forrest S. Frazier J. Derrickson S. 1994. A Model for Improving Endangered Species Recovery Programs. Environmental Management 18(5):637-645.
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses common organizational problems that cause inadequate planning and implementation processes of endangered species recovery across biologically dissimilar species. If these problems occur, even proven biological conservation techniques are jeopardized. We propose a solution that requires accountability in all phases of the restoration process and is based on cooperative input among government agencies, nongovernmental conservation organizations, and the academic community. The first step is formation of a task-oriented recovery team that integrates the best expertise into the planning process. This interdisciplinary team should be composed of people whose skills directly address issues critical for recovery. Once goals and procedures are established, the responsible agency (for example, in the United States, the US Fish and Wildlife Service) could divest some or all of its obligation for implementing the plan, yet still maintain oversight by holding implementing entities contractually accountable. Regular, periodic outside review and public documentation of the recovery team, lead agency, and the accomplishments of implementing bodies would permit evaluation necessary to improve performance. Increased cooperation among agency and nongovernmental organizations provided by this model promises a more efficient use of limited resources toward the conservation of biodiversity.
KEY WORDS: Endangered Species/Management/Policy/Recovery Plan/Recover Team/Organizational Structure/6 BIOLOGICAL REASONS/CONSERVATION/SCIENCE/POLICY/ACT/MANAGEMENT/WORK/EPA
94. Miller, C. J. Craig J. L. Mitchell N. D. 1994. Ark 2020 - A Conservation Vision for Rangitoto and Motutapu Islands. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 24(1):65-90.
ABSTRACT: Our vision for the development of Rangitoto and Motutapu Islands is that they be restored to the state of functioning native ecosystems. In order to achieve this, all mammals and invasive weeds must first be eradicated. Following this, past ecological and culturally-influenced communities can be restored by the revegetation of large areas of Motutapu and the reintroduction, or translocation, of native fauna. There is a need for open public access and provision for full interpretation of the Maori and Pakeha culture and history, as well as of the ecological values associated with these two islands. This document outlines a strategy whereby such a project could be achieved. While this document is not intended to be a definitive working plan for the restoration of these islands, we believe that a strategy along these lines is one that would best meet the needs of both native flora and fauna and also of the New Zealand public.
KEY WORDS: Rangitoto Island/Motutapu Island/Ecosystem Restoration/Conservation/Revegetation/Species Reintroduction/Public Involvement/Open Sanctuary/STOATS MUSTELA-ERMINEA/NEW-ZEALAND
95. Miller, M. A. 1994. Provisioning by Captive Yellow-Tufted Honeyeaters (Lichenostomus melanops gippslandicus) Acting as Foster Parents for Helmeted Honeyeater Chicks (L. m. cassidix). Zoo Biology 13(3):209-217.
ABSTRACT: A captive breeding program is being conducted with the endangered helmeted honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix). Establishment of breeding stock involved cross fostering helmeted honeyeater chicks to breeding yellow-tufted honeyeaters (Lichenostomus melanops gippslandicus). Data were collected on provisioning rates and food preferences of the foster parents in feeding chicks of the helmeted subspecies. Feeding rates varied from 5 -6 each hour per chick in the first week to 8-10 per chick in week 3 and were similar for both one- and two-chick broods. Chicks were considered independent by 6 weeks. Provisioning by the foster parents was evenly divided between the sexes. Insects were the main food item fed to nestlings (89.9%). Moths and mealworms were the two most frequently selected items and were the two largest items available. The continued increase of the captive population may provide individuals for release to the wild population, and techniques developed through captive management will help conserve wild populations. (C) 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Chick Rearing/Avian Diets/Cross Fostering
96. Miller, P. S. 1994. Is Inbreeding Depression More Severe in a Stressful Environment. Zoo Biology 13(3):195-208.
ABSTRACT: Successful reintroduction of endangered species depends in part on their ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. Population genetics theory suggests that inbred populations lacking genetic variability may be unable to respond effectively to environmental stress. There have been very few studies designed explicitly to investigate the phenomenon of inbreeding depression under environmental stress, particularly in the context of conservation genetics. Three separate experiments using Drosophila melanogaster were designed to explore this issue. No increase in the magnitude of inbreeding depression was detected in laboratory lines subjected to three generations of continuous full-sib mating under temperature stress (28-degrees-C), lead stress (medium contaminated with 400 ppm Pb), or a combination of these stresses. Individual isofemale lines from a different population, however, did show significant increases in inbreeding depression when exposed to temperature stress for one generation of full-sib mating following three generations of full-sib inbreeding at 25-degrees-C. Further, chromosome-2 homozygotes showed, on average, a significant increase in inbreeding depression under lead stress when in competition with corresponding chromosome-2 heterozygotes compared to the same lines in a benign environment. Taken together, these results suggest that inbreeding depression is more severe under conditions of environmental stress and is more likely to be realized in an inter- or intraspecific competitive situation as can be experienced in the wild. Therefore, it is likely that reduced genetic variability through inbreeding is a much greater problem for recently reintroduced populations than it is for populations in a relatively benign zoo environment. (C) 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Captive Breeding/Competition/Drosophila/Genetic Variation/Reintroduction
97. Miller, P. S. Hedrick P. W. 1993. Inbreeding and Fitness in Captive Populations - Lessons from Drosophila. Zoo Biology 12(4):333-351.
ABSTRACT: The avoidance of inbreeding is a primary goal of endangered species population management. In order to fully understand the effects of inbreeding on the fitness of natural and captive populations, it is necessary to consider fitness components which span the entire life cycle of the organism. Using Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism for conservation genetics studies, we constructed 18 experimental lines derived from wild-type stocks which were homozygous for chromosome 2 (this chromosome constitutes 38% of the genome or is equivalent to F = 0.38). For six of these lines which exhibited a reduced homozygous fitness, we estimated the relative values of fitness components operating at both the juvenile stage (pre-adult viability) and adult stage (female fecundity and male-mating ability) of the life cycle. Males in these lines showed a markedly reduced mating ability, while viability and female fecundity were much less affected. Equilibrium values of the wild-type chromosomes in these lines were accurately predicted using a model that incorporated into it these independently estimated fitness components. These results emphasize the importance of studying all fitness components directly to determine overall fitness. A reduced mating ability among inbred males of a captive population can have serious consequences for its future sustainability, and can further jeopardize reintroduction efforts; consequently, a program to carefully monitor the reproductive success of individual males, as well as other fitness components, is recommended. (C) 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
KEY WORDS: Captive Breeding/Genetic Variation/Male-Mating Ability/Reintroduction
98. Mistretta, O. 1994. Genetics of Species Re-Introduction - Applications of Genetic Analysis. Biodiversity and Conservation 3(2):184-190.
ABSTRACT: The value of obtaining genetic information as a prerequisite to management decisions regarding rare plant species is assessed using specific examples. The conclusions derived indicate that specific genetic information can help direct planning, strategy and development and the allocation of resources. However, such information can also be valueless in management terms because the information obtained, by its nature, cannot always be interpreted unambiguously, and thus is unable to provide the predictive certainty that is often required or expected by management personnel. It is important that such caveats be clear, to management personnel before applying genetic studies for applied purposes.
KEY WORDS: Rare Plants/Genetic Analysis/Management/Conservation
99. Mlot, C. 1990. Restorationists Return Native Species to Damaged Lands - Is Conservation Enough - This New Breed of Scientists Seeks to Do More, Repairing the Harm Done by Man. Scientist 4(15):4.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
100. Moore, D. E. 1990. The Red Wolf - Extinction, Captive Propagation and Reintroduction. Pages 136-139 in Mitchell, R. S., Sheviak, C. J., Leopold, D. J., eds. Ecosystem Management : Rare Species and Significant Habits. New York State Museum, Albany, NY .
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
101. Mrlik, V. Koubek P. 1992. Relation of Birds of Prey to the Place of Release of Artificially-Bred Pheasant Chicks. Folia Zoologica 41(3):233-252.
ABSTRACT: Investigations were carried out in the region of southern Moravia from 1987 to 1989 (August-March). Within Czechoslovakia, this is a locality both qualitatively and quantitatively rich in birds of prey (predators). Among these the most abundant was Buteo buteo - 77.3 %, other abundant species included Falco tinnunculus - 6.8 %, Circus cyaneus - 5.2 %, Accipiter nisus - 2.8 %, Accipiter gentilis - 1.9 % Milvus milvus - 1.4 % and Pernis apivorus - 1.2 %. Another 9 species were represented by less than 1 %. In view of the aim of this paper the authors considered Buteo buteo, Circus cyaneus, Accipiter nisus and Accipiter gentilis to be the predators of artificially-bred pheasant chicks. Each year 500-900 pheasant chicks were released. An analysis of the study and check transects and their comparison did not suggest any increase in the abundance of these predatory species in places associated with the release of pheasant chicks. Neither did the methods applied demonstrate in any predatory species preference for posts associated with pheasant release.
KEY WORDS:
102. Munson, L. Cook R. A. 1993. Monitoring, Investigation, and Surveillance of Diseases in Captive Wildlife. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):281-290.
ABSTRACT: Conservation programs for captive breeding and reintroduction of threatened and endangered species need a means to assess the risk of introducing infectious diseases into or obtaining diseases from the reintroduction environment. Risk assessment is seriously hampered by insufficient knowledge of the diseases of these species. Acquisition of data on the infectious diseases of threatened and endangered species can be expedited through cooperative disease surveys of captive and free-ranging animals. Integrating information from various sources will be greatly facilitated by setting standards for data collection. Standard guidelines for monitoring, investigating, and surveillance of infectious diseases in captive animals are presented that will provide essential information for an infectious disease data base. A method for prioritizing infectious diseases by the degree of threat to a species or environment is also proposed, so that the limited resources for disease investigations can be appropriately allocated. Application of these methods to species targeted for reintroduction will reduce the risk of human-caused catastrophic epidemics in endangered species. Furthermore, these methods will significantly increase our knowledge of disease epidemiology in nondomestic species.
KEY WORDS: Diagnostic Tests/Pathology/Data Base/Quarantine/Reintroduction/Risk Analysis
103. Musil, D. D., Reese, K. P., and Connelly, J. W. 1994. Nesting and Summer Habitat Use by Translocated Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in Central Idaho. Great Basin Naturalist 54(3):228-233.
ABSTRACT: We translocated 196 Sage Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) into Sawtooth Valley, Idaho, during March-April 1986-87 to augment a small resident population. Forty-four grouse equipped with radio transmitters were monitored through spring and summer. Nest sites (n = 6) had greater (P = .032) horizontal cover than did independent random plots (n = 7). During summer, grouse used sites (n = 50) with taller live and dead shrub heights, greater shrub canopy cover, and more ground litter (P < .009) than were found on dependent random plots (n = 50) 50-300 m from use sites. Distance to edge and mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata vaseyana) density best separated use sites from independent random plots in logistic regression analysis and correctly classified 64% of the use sites and 78% of the independent random plots. Sage Grouse used sites that had narrower frequency distributions for many variables than did independently plots (P < .04), suggesting selection for uniform habitat.
KEY WORDS: Centrocercus-Urophasianus/Dispersal/Habitat Use/Home Range/Idaho/Radio Telemetry/Sage Grouse/Translocation
104. Nelson, M. E. 1994. Migration bearing and distance memory by translocated white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus. Canadian Field - Naturalist 108(1):74-76.
ABSTRACT: Of nine White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) translocated during winter, four attempted to return 10-22 km to their capture sites and two did so successfully. Three deer translocated 22 km did not attempt to home but established summer home ranges with distances and bearings from winter ranges that mimicked those of their group members not translocated. Apparently, memory of distance and direction of a migration pattern is part of the navigation process and independent of the topography in which the migration first occurred.
KEY WORDS: White-tailed Deer/Odocoileus virginianus/migration/translocation/navigation
105. Nesbitt, S. A. Carpenter J. W. 1993. Survival and Movements of Greater Sandhill Cranes Experimentally Released in Florida. Journal of Wildlife Management 57(4):673-679.
ABSTRACT: The potential reintroduction of a population of whooping cranes (Grus americana) in Florida depends on having an effective introduction technique. We tested 2 experimental release techniques to evaluate post-release survival, dispersal, and the innate predilection to migration in cranes as a preliminary step in the establishment of a non-migrating population of whooping cranes. Thirty-four eggs of migratory greater sandhill cranes (GSHC) (G. canadensis tabida) were exchanged for the clutches in 23 nests of Florida sandhill cranes (FSHC) (G. c. pratensis), a non-migratory subspecies; 5 young were fledged from these introductions. Concurrently, 27 captive-reared, subadult GSHC were soft-released in the same area of north-central Florida. Movements and survival of both release groups were assessed through radio telemetry. In general, dispersal was similar to normal, subadult FSHC. The experimental birds tended to move south in autumn, but did not move north in the spring; frequency of southern movements was not different in control and experimental groups. Survival differed (P < 0.005) between experimental groups; 56% for captive-reared young (for the first year following release) and 39% for foster-reared young (from hatching to leaving natal home range). Our data suggest that captive-rearing and soft-release should be used as the primary reintroduction strategy for future releases of whooping cranes.
KEY WORDS: CONSERVATION
106. Nolet, B. A. and Baveco, J. M. 1996. Development and viability of a translocated beaver Castor fiber population in the Netherlands. Biological Conservation 75(2):125-137.
ABSTRACT: We monitored survival, reproduction and emigration of a translocated beaver Castor fiber population in the Netherlands for five years and used a stochastic model to assess its viability. Between 1988 and 1991, 42 beavers were released in the Biesbosch National Park. The mortality was initially high but gradually fell to normal rates. However, the breeding success was low, and we hypothesized that this was either a temporary phenomenon (the translocation hypothesis) or a permanent feature (the poor habitat hypothesis). According to the computer simulations, the isolated population was viable under the first but not under the second hypothesis. In the latter case, the prospects generally improved by the foundation of another population in the Gelderse Poort (100 km from the Biesbosch), However, this second habitat should be optimal for beavers in order to reduce the extinction probability of the Biesbosch population to below 10% in 100 years,' the loss of genetic variability (1-2% per generation) was just above the applied tolerable risk (1%), but the effects of inbreeding are unknown in beavers. We conclude that the beaver population in the Biesbosch is not viable unless the reproductive success increases, either in the Biesbosch itself or in a nearby population. We recommend applying such viability analyses to evaluate the likely success of any translocation.
KEY WORDS: population viability analysis/reintroduction/translocation/simulation model/Castor fiber/SPECIES CONSERVATION/EXTINCTION
107. Parker, W. T. Phillips M. K. 1991. Application of the Experimental Population Designation to Recovery of Endangered Red Wolves. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19(1):73-79.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
108. Pearcekelly, P., Mace, G. M., and Clarke, D. 1995. The release of captive bred snails (Partula taeniata) into a semi-natural environment. Biodiversity and Conservation 4(6):645-663.
ABSTRACT: A population of zoo bred Partula taeniata was released into a patch of native Polynesian plants in the Palm House at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, UK. The released snails were from a colony established from wild-caught snails in 1982, which had been in captive conditions for up to six generations. Monitoring of the snails was continuous and intensive for the first 2 weeks, and at decreasing frequency over the next 15 months. There was high survivorship early on in the release, but once the intensive monitoring ended survivorship became hard to determine due to difficulties in locating snails in the large and complex habitat. However, snails are known to have persisted for at least 15 months, and new individuals have been noted maturing into all developmental stages. The snails exhibited patterns of feeding and microhabitat choice similar to those observed in the wild, despite being reared in a highly artificial environment. The methods and results provide some guidelines for future release trials for this highly endangered group of snails.
KEY WORDS: captive breeding/introduction/Partula/monitoring invertebrate conservation
109. Pennycuik, P. R. Reisner A. H. 1990. The Founding Population - The Effect of Differences in Its Size, Nature and Season of Establishment on the Subsequent Dynamics of Populations of House Mice, Mus-Musculus L. Australian Journal of Zoology 38(5):479-492.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: NUMBERS/MOUSE/AUSTRALIA/PLAGUES/FOOD
110. Philippart, J. C. 1995. Is captive breeding an effective solution for the preservation of endemic species? Biological Conservation 72(2):281-295.
ABSTRACT: Captive breeding and the release of captive-bred individuals into the wild are among the techniques used for the conservation of rare and endangered fish species. After a brief description of the methods of captive breeding and the establishment of breeding stocks, this paper provides examples of the application of these techniques to endemic fish species of arid regions in south-western USA and examines some current cases and the future possibilities for their use in the Mediterranean region. Special attention is given to the analysis of the strict constraints imposed on fish breeding for conservation purposes, in which the aim is to produce fish with all the morphological, behavioural and genetic characteristics of the taxa to be conserved, and which are capable of effectively adapting to the natural environment when introduced. In terms of genetic management of captive populations, the fundamental problems which are faced involve the categorization of the species-resources to be conserved (identification of cases of inter- and intra-specific introgression), the establishment of founder stocks that contain the maximum genetic diversity depending on the genetic structure of the species (strong intra- or interpopulation variability), and the retention of genetic variability during captive breeding (the need to reduce to the minimum the phenomena of genetic drift, inbreeding and unintentional selection of non-adapted genotypes). Because of these difficulties and risks in terms of genetic conservation, captive breeding should remain a temporary safeguard measure, while awaiting the implementation of measures for protecting species in their restored original habitat or translocation to strictly protected substitute habitats. With this aim in view and in conclusion, the paper suggests methods for organizing a critical plan to safeguard the most endangered species or subspecies in the Mediterranean region by captive breeding.
KEY WORDS: endemic/captive breeding/conservation/fish/FRESH-WATER FISHES/CONSERVATION GENETICS/ENDANGERED FISHES/ATLANTIC SALMON/BROWN TROUT/RARE FISHES/POPULATIONS/HATCHERY/STOCKS/DIFFERENTIATION
111. Phillips, M. K. Scheck J. 1991. Parasitism in Captive and Reintroduced Red Wolves. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 27(3):498-501.
ABSTRACT: Fecal examinations revealed that at least 10 of 21 (48%) captive red wolves (Canis rufus) and eight of 12 (67%) free-ranging red wolves were infected with intestinal parasites. No captive wolves and only one of seven reintroduced wolves had dirofilariasis. Ticks were collected from 10 of 21 (48%) captive wolves and nine of 12 (75%) free-ranging animals. Ivermectin administered at a dosage of 50-mu-g/kg of estimated body weight every 30 to 60 days apparently prevented or ameliorated parasitism in red wolves.
KEY WORDS: Captivity/Canis-Rufus/Free-Ranging/Parasitism/Red Wolf/Reintroductions/GULF COASTAL PRAIRIES/WILD CANIDS/LOUISIANA/TEXAS
112. Phillips, R. L. Cummings J. L. Berry J. D. 1991. Responses of Breeding Golden Eagles to Relocation. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19(4):430-434.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
113. Pomarol, M. 1994. Releasing Montagu Harrier (Circus pygargus) by the Method of Hacking. Journal of Raptor Research 28(1):19-22.
ABSTRACT: The hacking technique is the method most frequently used for the introduction of birds of prey. The use of this technique in the reintroduction of Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) is described. Hacking takes place in an enclosure measuring 3-4 m x 2 m x 1 m high. The harriers were between 20 and 30 d of age. After 5-8 d the enclosure was opened. The young birds became independent on average 33.7 d after the first flights (70.5 d of age). Over a 5-yr period 87 birds were introduced with a success rate of 82.7%. Only three birds have been seen returning to the area in subsequent years, but it is still early to be assessing the success of the project.
KEY WORDS: Circus-Pygargus/Hacking/Releasing
114. Post, W. Seals C. A. 1991. Breeding Biology of a Newly-Established Double-Crested Cormorant Population in South-Carolina, USA. Colonial Waterbirds 14(1):34-38.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
115. Powell, A. N. Cuthbert F. J. 1993. Augmenting Small Populations of Plovers - An Assessment of Cross-Fostering and Captive-Rearing. Conservation Biology 7(1):160-168.
ABSTRACT: This study compared the growth and behavioral development of parent-reared, cross-fostered, and captive-reared Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus) chicks. Common species were used to test these techniques for possible application to rare and endangered forms. Parent-reared chicks were raised naturally in the wild, cross-fostered chicks were raised by Spotted Sandpipers (Actitis macularia) in the wild, and captive-reared chicks were raised in captivity by humans. Both hatching and fledging success were significantly increased by captive-rearing, and cross-fostering produced approximately the same number of fledged young as natural parent-rearing. Captive-reared Killdeer chicks spent more time resting and less time feeding, and stayed closer to siblings than cross-fostered or parent reared chicks; these behavioral differences were not seen after release to the wild Growth rates among the three groups were similar All of the young Killdeer responded to Killdeer alarm calls. There was no evidence that captive-reared and cross-fostered Killdeer were negatively affected by their early experiences. Captive-rearing is a viable management technique for augmenting small populations of endangered shorebirds, such as the Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus). It is recommended over cross-fostering because captive-rearing is more flexible as a technique, produces more young does not affect another species, and does not produce potential imprinting problems.
KEY WORDS:
116. Price, E. C. 1992. Adaptation of Captive-Bred Cotton-Top Tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) to a Natural Environment. Zoo Biology 11(2):107-120.
ABSTRACT: The reintroduction to the wild of captive-born individuals could have an important role in saving some endangered species from extinction. However, such individuals may not have the necessary skills to survive in the wild. In order to assess their locomotor and orientation capabilities in a natural environment, a family of five captive-bred cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) was released into a wooded area in the grounds of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. Descriptive and quantitative data were collected during an intensive 10-week study and a further 6 weeks of systematic monitoring. The tamarins coped well with the change of environment from cage to wood. As the study progressed, they used a wider range of strata, from the ground to heights of more than 15 m, and began to use relatively thin (less than 10 cm diameter) diagonal branches rather than fixed horizontal supports such as nestboxes. Their range increased in area, and they spent less time resting and more time moving and feeding. Studies like this can provide information on the skills already possessed by captive-born animals, as well as those which will have to be improved by more structured training programs, and therefore have important implications for the preparation of captive-born primates for reintroduction to the wild.
KEY WORDS: Callitrichidae/Reintroduction/Release/Training/Conservation/Captive Management
117. Price, M. R. S. 1989. Re-Introductions Defined and Reviewed. Pages 1-25 Animal Re-Introductions.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
118. Priddel, D. and Wheeler, R. 1994. Mortality of Captive-Raised Malleefowl, Leipoa-Ocellata, Released into a Mallee Remnant Within the Wheat-Belt of New-South-Wales. Wildlife Research 21(5):543-552.
ABSTRACT: Loss, fragmentation and degradation of mallee habitat within the New South Wales wheat-belt have caused a marked decline in the range and local abundance of malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata. Small disjunct populations of malleefowl now occupy small isolated remnants of suitable habitat, and several of these populations have become locally extinct in recent times. Young captive-reared malleefowl (8-184 days old) were experimentally released in March and June 1988 into a 558-ha remnant of mallee vegetation. The remnant contained a small but declining population of malleefowl. From the first day after release, malleefowl were found dead, and mortality continued at a rapid rate until none remained alive. Of the 31 released, 16 (52%) were dead after 7 days, at least 22 (71%) were dead after 11 days, and none survived longer than 107 days. In all, 94% of malleefowl were killed by predators: 26-39% by raptors, and 55-68% by introduced predators, principally foxes, Vulpes vulpes. No improvement in survival was evident when malleefowl were given supplementary food. Relying principally on camouflage, young malleefowl have no effective defence or escape behaviour to evade ground-dwelling predators such as the fox. By imposing severe predation pressure on young malleefowl, foxes are likely to be curtailing recruitment into the breeding population. Such a situation must inevitably lead to the further localised extinction of small disjunct populations of malleefowl. Foxes are thus a major threat to the continuance of remnant populations of malleefowl within the wheat-belt of New South Wales.
KEY WORDS: SUCCESS
119. Proulx, G., Kolenosky, A. J., Badry, M. J., Drescher, R. K., Seidel, K., and Cole, P. J. 1994. Post-Release Movements of Translocated Fishers. pp. 197-203 in Buskirk, S.W.//Harestad, A.S.//Raphael, M.G.//Powell, R.A., eds. Martens, Sables, and Fishers. Comstock Publ .Assoc., Ithaca, NY .
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
120. Pulliainen, E. 1992. One-Year Tracking Data and Behaviour of a Released Hand-Reared Moose (Alces alces) in Forest Lapland. Zeitschrift Fur Saugetierkunde - International Journal of Mammalian Biology 57(3):186-189.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
121. Ralls, K. Siniff D. B. Doroff A. Mercure A. 1992. Movements of Sea Otters Relocated Along the California Coast. Marine Mammal Science 8(2):178-184.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
122. Reading, R. P. Kellert S. R. 1993. Attitudes Toward a Proposed Reintroduction of Black-Footed Ferrets (Mustela nigripes). Conservation Biology 7(3):569-580.
ABSTRACT: Sociological considerations are crucial to recovery efforts such as the proposed reintroduction of endangered black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) into Phillips County, Montana Many past reintroduction attempts have failed or been less successful because they neglected these concerns. This study examined knowledge. attitudes, and opinions of ranchers toward black-footed ferrets, prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.), and the proposed ferret reintroduction using informal, unstructured interviews and a mail sample survey. Ranchers within the proposed reintroduction site were antagonistic toward the program, the ferret, and especially the prairie dogs upon which black-footed ferrets depend for survival. Of six sample groups, local ranchers scored highest on negativistic, libertarian/dominionistic, and utilitarian attitude scales and lowest on moralistic, humanistic, and naturalistic/ecologistic attitude scales. Their attitudes were most similar to those of ranchers statewide, followed by residents of Phillips County, Montana Billings, Montana, residents, and members of the Montana Wildlife Federation; they were least similar to attitudes of members of conservation organizations other than the Montana Wildlife Federation. Local ranchers perceived themselves as having little knowledge of black-footed ferrets, even though they received significantly higher scores on the black-footed ferret knowledge scales than did most other groups, and they perceived themselves as having great knowledge of prairie dogs, even though their scores on the prairie dog knowledge scales were no better than any other group. These results are useful for ranking the suitability of reintroduction sites, for formulating policies, and for developing more effective public relations campaigns. The results highlight the need for education and public relations programs that do more than simply provide facts and information. Well-conceived public relations programs should use pressure, purchase, and persuasion to try to change or neutralize opposition and to develop, conserve, and strengthen support. Endangered species reintroduction and recovery programs will rarely succeed if they do not actively consider and incorporate the values, attitudes, behaviors, and desires of the local public.
KEY WORDS:
123. Reed, C. E. M. Nilsson R. J. Murray D. P. 1993. Cross-Fostering New-Zealands Black Stilt. Journal of Wildlife Management 57(3):608-611.
ABSTRACT: To increase fledging success and recruitment of young birds into the breeding population of endangered black stilts (Himantopus novaezelandiae) in New Zealand from 1981 to 1987, we protected nest-sites from predators and manipulated egg production through multiple clutching and cross-fostering to pied stilts (H. himantopus). Pairs producing multiple clutches fledged more young (P < 0.01) than did unmanipulated pairs and more young fostered to black pairs were resighted than those fostered to hybrid (black x pied, pied x hybrid, and hybrid x hybrid) pairs. juveniles cross-fostered to pied or hybrid stilt pairs migrated with foster parents but did not return to breed. More emphasis has been placed on increasing the success of chicks reared under black stilt parents since 1988. Black stilts did not benefit from inter-specific fostering because migratory behavior learned from foster parents was detrimental to long-term survival of this species.
KEY WORDS:
124. Reimchen, T. E. 1991. Introduction and Dispersal of the Pacific Treefrog, Hyla-Regilla, on the Queen-Charlotte-Islands, British-Columbia. Canadian Field - Naturalist 105(2):288-290.
ABSTRACT: In about 1962, Pacific Treefogs, Hyla regilla, from near Comox Lake, Vancouver Island, were transplanted to the Queen Charlotte Islands where the only native amphibian is the Western Toad Bufo boreas. The initial population of about six adults increased in numbers and expanded its range into a diversity of habitats. Secondary transplants have been made by local residents to other regions in the archipelago. Each of these has led to new dispersal fronts and currently the treefrog has a range of ca. 2600 km2 (26% of the total area of the islands). Dispersal rate was estimated at about 2 km/y, but has been aided by secondary introductions.
KEY WORDS: Pacific Treefrog/Hyla-Regilla/Western Toad/Bufo-Boreas/Queen-Charlotte-Islands/Introduction/Dispersal Rate
125. Reinert, H. K. 1991. Translocation as a Conservation Strategy for Amphibians and Reptiles - Some Comments, Concerns, and Observations. Herpetologica 47(3):357-363.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: CROTALUS-HORRIDUS/BROWN TROUT/POPULATIONS
126. Remmert, H. 1994. Minimum Animal Populations - Introduction. Pages 1-2 in Remmert, H., ed. Minimum Animal Populations. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
127. Rickard, L. G., Smith, B. B., Gentz, E. J., Frank, A. A., Pearson, E. G., Walker, L. L., and Pybus, M. J. 1994. Experimentally Induced Meningeal Worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) Infection in the Llama (Lama glama) - Clinical Evaluation and Implications for Parasite Translocation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 25(3):390-402.
ABSTRACT: Six adult llamas (Lama glama) were experimentally infected with five larval Parelaphostrongylus tenuis each. Neurologic, anatomic, and cerebrospinal fluid changes were assessed, and the potential for llamas to develop patent meningeal worm infections was evaluated. Clinical signs first appeared on days 45-53 postinfection. Onset of clinical signs was significantly associated with the age of the llama. Neurologic deficits characteristically appeared in the hind limbs first and progressed to the front limbs. Four of six llamas developed fatal infections, with clinical signs lasting between 20 and 80 days. No consistent abnormalities were present in cerebrospinal fluid total protein, glucose, aspartate aminotransferase, or creatine kinase, thus limiting their value as diagnostic indicators of infection. All llamas developed an eosinophilic pleocytosis in the cerebrospinal fluid, but the day on which it appeared differed. Histologic lesions compatible with parasite migration were present, primarily in the cervical spinal cord, in five of six llamas. Although two of six llamas survived the duration of the study, evidence of reproducing meningeal worm populations was absent. Risk of llamas transporting patent meningeal worm populations to nonendemic areas is considered minimal.
KEY WORDS: Meningeal Worm/Parelaphostrongylus-Tenuis/Llama/Lama-Glama/Cerebrospinal Fluid/Parasite Translocation/WHITE-TAILED DEER/CEREBROSPINAL-FLUID/FALLOW DEER/ODOCOILEUS-VIRGINIANUS/ATAXIA/GOATS/ELK
128. Robertson, H. A., Hay, J. R., Saul, E. K., and Mccormack, G. V. 1994. Recovery of the Kakerori: An endangered forest bird of the Cook Islands. Conservation Biology 8(4):1078-1086.
ABSTRACT: The Kakerori, or Rarotonga Flycatcher (Pomareca dimidiata), is an endangered monarch flycatcher endemic to the island of Rarotonga, Cook Islands. This bird was reported to be common until the middle of the nineteenth century, but it declined before 1885 and was thought to be extinct early this century. A small population persisted in the rugged interior of Rarotonga; in 1987 the population stood at 38 birds but was in decline. We determined that introduced predators, especially ship rats (Rattus rattus), were affecting breeding success. Through a program of experimental management, aimed mainly at rodent control, the population increased from a low of 29 birds in Spring 1989 to 60 birds in Spring 1993. The recovery can be attributed to both improved breeding success and increased adult survivorship.
KEY WORDS:
129. Robinette, K. W., Andelt, W. F., and Burnham, K. P. 1995. Effect of group size on survival of relocated prairie dogs. Journal of Wildlife Management 59(4):867-874.
ABSTRACT: We studied the effect of group size on survival of black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) relocated to 12 experimental plots in Colorado to determine success of reintroductions. Six groups of 10, 3 groups of 30, and 3 groups of 60 prairie dogs were randomly assigned and released from July to October 1990 in 6 1-, 3 3-, and 3 6-ha plots, respectively, in former prairie dog colonies that were extirpated by sylvatic plague (Yersinia pestis) during fall 1988. We recaptured prairie dogs in plots during September-October 1990, February-March 1991, June 1991, and September-October 1991 to estimate survival. We used capture-recapture models to estimate survival and recapture rates. Daily survival rates between release and first recapture were different for 10- (0.9767, SE = 0.0044), 30- (0.9854, SE = 0.0023), and 60-animal groups (0;9914, SE = 0.0016) (P < 0.001) and were directly related to group size (P < 0.001). The number of progeny captured per animal released was greater in the 60- (($) over bar x = 0.79, SE = 0.06) than in the 10- (($) over bar x = 0.28, SE = 0.21) animal plots (P = 0.028), but did not vary between the 60- and 30-animal plots (($) over bar x = 0.62, SE = 0.09) (P = 0,333)or between the 30- and 10-animal plots (P = 0.156). The 60-animal groups attracted more immigrants than the 10- or 30-animal groups. Ratios of the number of prairie dogs 1 year after release (survivors and progeny) to those released varied (P = 0.018) among the 10- (($) over bar x = 0.46, SE = 0.21), 30- (($) over bar x = 0.81, SE = 0;09), and 60- (($) over bar x = 1.17, SE = 0.08) animal groups and were related linearly (P = 0.006) but not quadratically (P = 0.750) to the number of animals released. One year after release, only the 60-animal groups had more survivors and progeny than the number of prairie dogs released. We recommend releasing a minimum of 60 animals/site in areas with potential immigrants.
KEY WORDS: black-tailed prairie dog/Colorado/Cynomys ludovicianus/mark-recapture/survival/relocation/CONSERVATION
130. Rodgers, R. D. 1992. A Technique for Establishing Sharp-Tailed Grouse in Unoccupied Range. Wildlife Society Bulletin 20(1):101-106.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: SAGE GROUSE/LEK
131. Rodriguez, A., Barrios, L., and Delibes, M. 1995. Experimental Release of an Iberian Lynx (Lynx-Pardinus). Biodiversity and Conservation 4(4):382-394.
ABSTRACT: Reintroduction to the wild of threatened species has become a modern additional justification for captive propagation. This conservation procedure is costly, and both economic resources and the abscence of optimal conditions in the field limit the IUCN recommendations for reintroduction to a small proportion of potential candidate species. Furthermore reintroduction attempts often fail. In carnivores, reintroduction failure is attributed to unsuitable adaptation in the field by captive-reared animals, due to their lack of hunting skills, their tendency to leave the target area, their inadequate interaction with conspecifics or their excessive confidence in humans. This list of causes is based on very few studies of carnivore adaptation after reintroduction. In very rare and endangered species, monitoring individual case-histories is the only way to evaluate reintroduction success. We report a successful experimental release of an Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) which grew up in captivity. Careful feeding-training and avoidance of human contact during the captive phase, as well as good habitat quality and correct interaction with other wild lynx in the release site, seem to account for the observed success. Permanence of the lynx within the release area might be related to the availability of territory vacancies in the receiving population. Our results allow some optimism for future reintroductions of this endangered species in areas where it has become extinct recently.
KEY WORDS: Experimental Release/Pre-Release Training/Adaptation to the Wild of Captive Animals/Lynx-Pardinus
132. Ross, P. I. and Jalkotzy, M. G. 1995. Fates of translocated Cougars, Felis concolor, in Alberta. Canadian Field Naturalist 109(4):475-476.
ABSTRACT: Three Cougars in Alberta were translocated in response to problem-wildlife complaints. One, an adult female, died within a few weeks. The other two, subadult males, survived at least 10 months and did not return to their natal areas.
KEY WORDS: Cougar/Felis concolor/problem wildlife/translocation/Alberta
133. Roy, J. L. and Irby, L. R. 1994. Augmentation of a Bighorn Sheep Herd in Southwest Montana. Wildlife Society Bulletin 22(3):470-478.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: Bighorn Sheep/Montana/Ovis-Canadensis/Population Augmentation/Translocation/MOUNTAIN SHEEP
134. Rudolph, D. C. Conner R. N. Carrie D. K. Schaefer R. R. 1992. Experimental Reintroduction of Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers. Auk 109(4):914-916.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: CAVITIES
135. Russell, W. C. Thorne E. T. Oakleaf R. Ballou J. D. 1994. The Genetic Basis of Black-Footed Ferret Reintroduction. Conservation Biology 8(1):263-266.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
136. Sainsbury, A. W., Cunningham, A. A., Morris, P. A., Kirkwood, J. K., and Macgregor, S. K. 1996. Health and welfare of rehabilitated juvenile hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) before and after release into the wild. Veterinary Record 138(3):61-65.
ABSTRACT: Thirteen wild caught juvenile hedgehogs mere treated and overwintered in a rehabilitation centre and 12 were released into the wild and monitored by radiotelemetry. Clinical examinations were carried out before they were released and twice afterwards, and any hedgehogs found dead were examined post mortem. The health of the animals was generally good but dental disease, obesity and minor injuries were common. One hedgehog died before it was released and had cardiovascular and respiratory lesions, and one was euthanased 28 days after its release and had verminous enteritis and parasitic bronchitis. Three hedgehogs were killed by badgers, two were killed by road traffic and four were known to have survived when the study ended.
KEY WORDS:
137. Sainsbury, A. W. and Gurnell, J. 1995. An investigation into the health and welfare of red squirrels, Sciurus vulgaris, involved in reintroduction studies. Veterinary Record 137(15):367-370.
ABSTRACT: The threats posed by parapoxvirus infection, metabolic bone disease and coccidiosis to the reintroduction of red squirrels into Thetford Chase were investigated by making blood biochemical, radiological and parasitological examinations on the squirrels before they were released and on resident squirrels. Red squirrels found dead in Thetford Chase were examined post mortem by parasitological, electron microscopical and radiological techniques. Parapoxvirus infection was the probable cause of death of two red squirrels. Parapoxvirus infection may be a significant threat to remnant populations of red squirrels in England, and to the success of conservation measures.
KEY WORDS:
138. SaintJalme, M., Combreau, O., Seddon, P. J., Paillat, P., Gaucher, P., and vanHeezik, Y. 1996. Restoration of Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii (Houbara bustard) populations in Saudi Arabia: A progress report. Restoration Ecology 4(1):81-87.
ABSTRACT: During the last two decades Chlamydotis undulata (houbara bustard) has declined drastically throughout its range, due primarily to over-hunting and severe habitat degradation. The threatened extinction of local populations led the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development of Saudi Arabia to implement ex- and in-situ conservation measures: (1) a captive breeding program initiated in 1986, which achieved production of a self-sustaining breeding flock as well as a surplus for reintroduction by 1992; (2) establishment of a 13,775-km(2) protected area around the last known breeding population in Saudi Arabia; (3) studies of wild birds, to determine densities, feeding ecology, and habitat requirements; and (4) studies on different release techniques (adult releases, sub-adult releases, feather-cut sub-adult releases, and covey releases), carried out since 1991 within the 2,300-km(2) fenced and protected area of the Mahazat as-Sayd reserve.
KEY WORDS:
139. Saltz, D. 1996. Minimizing extinction probability due to demographic stochasticity in a reintroduced herd of Persian fallow deer Dama dama mesopotamica. Biological Conservation 75(1):27-33.
ABSTRACT: The Persian fallow deer Dama dama mesopotamica is extremely rare in the wild, but reintroduction of breeding animals from the Hai-Bar Carmel, Israel, may be feasible. A life table was constructed from data available in the world studbook. I used a Monte Carlo Leslie matrix simulation model to estimate probability of extinction due to demographic stochasticity, using different female age structures and numbers of individuals. Based on the simulations, 13 prime-aged females aged 2-4 years would be required to ensure an extinction probability of less than 1% over the next 100 years. Substituting older age groups increases extinction probability, thereby increasing the number of animals needed to achieve a 0.01 extinction probability. Due to poor reproductive success at the Hai-Bar Carmel prior to 1990, few females older than 5 are available. Also, there are no more than 11 females in each of the 2-4 years age groups. Thus a combination of eight 2-year-old and five 3-year-old females or seven 2-year-old, four 3-year-old, and two 4-year-old females is recommended. The choice between these two options should be based on genetic variability.
KEY WORDS: Dama dama mesopotamica/demographic stochasticity/extinction/Persian fallow deer/reintroduction/SEX-RATIOS/POPULATION/CONSERVATION
140. Saltz, D. and Rubenstein, D. I. 1995. Population dynamics of a reintroduced Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) herd. Ecological Applications 5(2):327-335.
ABSTRACT: Reintroduction is the release of animals into an area where they were extirpated or have significantly declined. Little is known about the factors that determine the success or failure of ungulate reintroduction. We studied the dynamics of a reintroduced Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) population for 10 yr (1983-1993) following the first successful release into the wild. A total of 14 adult females and 14 adult males were released into a nature reserve in the Negev Desert of southern Israel. Over this 10-yr span the female population has grown to only 16 adults. Reproductive success of reintroduced females was low in the first 5 yr following release (0.0-0.8 foals . female(-1). yr(-1)), but increased to 0.5-1.0 foals . female(-1). yr(-1) in the last 5 yr. Reproductive success of wild-born females greater than or equal to 3 yr old was higher than that of reintroduced females of similar ages, and ranged from 0.5-1.0 foals . female .(-1)yr(-1). Our study and data from the E. hemionus studbook suggest that young nonprimiparous females produced primarily males, while primiparous and old females produced primarily females. We attribute the low reproductive success following reintroduction to the stress caused by capture, transport, and release procedures; we consider the age-dependent progeny sex ratio within the framework of Trivers and Willard's (1973) maternal allocation hypothesis. We conclude that the slow growth of the female population was due to: (a) low reproductive success of females in the early years following reintroduction, and (b) a male-skewed progeny sex ratio among prime-aged reintroduced females. A simple stochastic Leslie matrix model suggests that high survival and improved reproductive success of reintroduced females at later stages of the study, and the reproductive success of wild-born females, make the population relatively unsusceptible to extinction from random demographic processes. In-depth knowledge of the dynamics of reintroduced populations is vital for the correct assessment of their viability. We offer suggestions for increasing the efficacy of future wild ass reintroductions.
KEY WORDS: Asiatic wild ass/Equus hemionus/extinction/population dynamics/progeny sex ratio/random demographic processes/reintroduction/FETAL SEX-RATIOS/SPECIES CONSERVATION/DEER/INVESTMENT/PATTERNS/TARANDUS/AFRICAN/SHEEP/BISON/AGE
141. Samuel, W. M. Pybus M. J. Welch D. A. Wilke C. J. 1992. Elk as a Potential Host for Meningeal Worm - Implications for Translocation. Journal of Wildlife Management 56(4):629-639.
ABSTRACT: Translocation of wild ungulates is a common wildlife management tool and an integral component of game farming activities throughout the world, Elk (Cervus elaphus) are a primary species being moved, and the possibility of translocating a hazardous parasite led us to examine the potential for elk to survive infections of meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), to shed larvae in feces, and thus, to translocate the parasite. Twenty-six elk calves were exposed to 15-300 infective larvae of meningeal worm. All 13 elk exposed to greater-than-or-equal-to 125 larvae developed neurologic disease and died; 2 shed larvae in feces prior to death. At necropsy, numerous adult meningeal worms were found throughout the central nervous system of each elk. Meningeal worm established infections in all 8 elk exposed to 25 or 75 larvae: 6 calves developed neurological signs (4 recovered, 2 died), the remaining 2 elk did not exhibit any clinical signs. Seven elk given 25 or 75 larvae shed larvae in feces. None of 5 elk exposed to 15 larvae developed clinical neurological signs or shed larvae; meningeal worms were recovered from the central nervous system of only 2. The ability to survive exposure to small numbers of meningeal worms may explain the persistence of the few remnant populations of elk in eastern North America. The potential for larvae to be present in the feces of these animals (or captive elk in the same areas) leads us to recommend that elk not be translocated from eastern to western North America until a reliable diagnostic test or treatment for meningeal worm is available.
KEY WORDS: WHITE-TAILED DEER/PARELAPHOSTRONGYLUS-TENUIS/NEUROLOGIC DISEASE/FALLOW DEER/ODOCOILEUS-VIRGINIANUS/CERVUS-ELAPHUS/NEMATODA/METASTRONGYLOIDEA/WAPITI/INFECTION
142. Samuel, W. M. Pybus M. J. Welch D. A. Wilke C. J. 1993. Elk as a Potential Host for Meningeal Worm - Implications for Translocation (J Wildl Manage, Vol 56, Pg 629, 1992) - Corrigendum. Journal of Wildlife Management 57(1):189.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
143. Scheepers, J. L. and Venzke, K. A. E. 1995. Attempts to reintroduce African wild dogs Lycaon pictus into Etosha National Park, Namibia. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 25(4):138-140.
ABSTRACT: Three attempts were made to reintroduce African wild dogs Lycaon pictus into Etosha National Park, Namibia. These attempts failed because the packs were released under suboptimal circumstances in areas with low prey densities, the dogs were inexperienced hunters as pups were reared in captivity, and the dogs were vulnerable to predation by lions. Four wild dogs died from rabies. Prey killed by wild dogs included springbok Antidorcas marsupialis, Burchell's zebra Equus burchelli and springhare Pedetes capensis.
KEY WORDS: African wild dog/rabies/reintroduction
144. Schroth, K. E. 1991. Survival, Movements, and Habitat Selection of Released Capercaillie in the North-East Black Forest in 1984-1989. Ornis Scandinavica 22(3):249-254.
ABSTRACT: In the north-east Black Forest, 37 young Capercaillie reared in captivity were radiotagged and released in August/September in 1984-1989. A high mortality of 95% was caused by fox, marten, Goshawk and accidents. In the first two weeks after release, 57% died and only two cocks survived the first winter. Released hens moved further than cocks. In the first spring, one cock visited several neighbouring lek sites, including some which had been abandoned for a long time. Habitat selection by released Capercaillie was similar to that of wild brids in the area. Open mixed pine forests, rich in bilberry, were preferred as well as edges and mixed-aged stands.
KEY WORDS:
145. Scott, J. M., Tear, T. H., and Mills, L. S. 1995. Socioeconomics and the recovery of endangered species: Biological assessment in a political world. Conservation Biology 9(1):214-216.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: MODEL/POPULATIONS/MANAGEMENT
146. Scribner, K. T. 1993. Conservation Genetics of Managed Ungulate Populations. Acta Theriologica 38( Suppl. 2):89-101.
ABSTRACT: Natural populations of many species are increasingly impacted by human activities. Perturbations are particularly pronounced for large ungulates due in part to sport and commercial harvest, to reductions and fragmentation of native habitat, and as the result of reintroductions. These perturbations affect population size, sex and age composition, and population breeding structure, and as a consequence affect the levels and partitioning of genetic variation. Three case histories highlighting long-term ecological genetic research on mule deer Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque, 1817), white-tailed deer 0. virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780), and Alpine ibex Capra i. ibex Linnaeus, 1758 are presented. Joint examinations of population ecological and genetic data from several populations of each species reveal: (1) that populations are not in genetic equilibrium, but that allele frequencies and heterozygosity change dramatically over time and among cohorts produced in successive years, (2) populations are genetically structured over short and large geographic distances reflecting local breeding structure and patterns of gene flow, respectively; however, this structure is quite dynamic over time, due in part to population exploitation, and (3) restocking programs are often undertaken with small numbers of founding individuals resulting in dramatic declines in levels of genetic variability and increasing levels of genetic differentiation among populations due to genetic drift. Genetic characteristics have and will continue to provide valuable indirect sources of information relating environmental and human perturbations to changes in population processes.
KEY WORDS: Conservation Genetics/Genetic Drift/Harvest/Heterozygosity/Reintroductions/Spatial Structure/Temporal Variation/Ungulates/CAPRA-I-IBEX/MULE DEER/NORTHWEST COLORADO/VARIABILITY/SIZE
147. Scribner, K. T. Stuwe M. 1994. Genetic Relationships Among Alpine Ibex Capra ibex Populations Re-Established from a Common Ancestral Source. Biological Conservation 69(2):137-143.
ABSTRACT: Eight populations of Alpine ibex Capra ibex ibex , which were restored from a common ancestral source, were characterized genetically to determine the influence of restoration events (i.e. method of recovery-natural dispersal vs translocation, founding number, population growth, and per-generation effective population size) on population levels of heterozygosity and on the degree of inter-population genetic divergence. Heterozygosities were generally low, and varied among populations (range H = 0.023-0.067). Allele frequencies varied greatly among populations at two variable loci (PEP-B, range of common allele 0.98-0.39; F(st) = 0.177 and LDH-1, range of common allele 1.00-0.00; F(st) = 0.424), indicating substantial genetic divergence over few generations following population separation. Estimates of expected inter-population variance, calculated based on the number of generations since populations were separated and estimates of effective population size, were similar to observed genetic variance (F(st)), calculated from variation in allozyme allele frequencies, suggesting that populations have diverged genetically at a rate consistent with expectations under random genetic drift. Characteristics of recovery events and of subsequent population growth appear to have affected the degree of population divergence in allele frequency but not differences in populations levels of heterozygosity.
KEY WORDS: Alps/Ibex/Effective Population Size/Genetic Variability/Restoration/Spatial Variation/LARGE MAMMALS/VARIABILITY/DIFFERENTIATION
148. Serfass, T. L. Brooks R. P. Rymon L. M. 1993. Evidence of Long-Term Survival and Reproduction by Translocated River Otters, Lutra canadensis. Canadian Field - Naturalist 107(1):59-63.
ABSTRACT: During 1982-1984, we reintroduced 26 Rive, Otters (Lutra canadensis) into Pine and Kettle Creek drainages in northcentral Pennsylvania. Results of initial radio-tracking studies indicated that habitats at introduction sites could support otter populations. To demonstrate long-term survival, we conducted surveys for otter scats along Pine and Kettle Creeks during September-December 1990 and April 1991, respectively. Otter scats were frequently encountered along both streams during surveys, demonstrating that otters have remained at release areas approximately six to eight years. Evidence gathered from otters accidentally caught by trappers at reintroduction areas demonstrated that six of nine otters trapped at Pine Creek and two of four at Kettle Creek had been reproduced by the respective reintroduced populations.
KEY WORDS: River Otter/Lutra-Canadensis/Pennsylvania/Reintroduction/Survey/Survival/Reproduction
149. Serfass, T. L. Peper R. L. Whary M. T. Brooks R. P. 1993. River Otter (Lutra canadensis) Reintroduction in Pennsylvania, Prerelease Care and Clinical Evaluation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(1):28-40.
ABSTRACT: The Pennsylvania River Otter Reintroduction Project (PRORP) was initiated in 1982 to restore river otters (Lutra canadensis) to portions of their historic range in Pennsylvania. To date, 75 otters have been successfully reintroduced to five watersheds in north-central and western Pennsylvania. Otters were obtained by live trapping in northeastern Pennsylvania and Maryland or were purchased from commercial dealers and trappers in Louisiana, New York, Michigan, and New Hampshire. Prior to reintroduction, otters usually underwent a period of captivity of 10-14 days to facilitate clinical evaluation, treatment of injuries, convalescence following surgical implantation of radio transmitters, and prerelease conditioning. Captive management techniques for physical and chemical restraint, evaluation of health status, housing, and nutrition were developed and refined by a team of wildlife biologists and laboratory animal veterinarians to enhance reintroduction success by promoting the release of healthy, well-conditioned otters. The incorporation of a captive management plan within the framework of otter relocation efforts has contributed to successful restoration of otter populations in Pennsylvania.
KEY WORDS: River Otter/Lutra-Canadensis/Reintroduction/Captive Management
150. Serfass, T. L., Whary, M. T., Peper, R. L., Brooks, R. P., Swimley, T. J., Lawrence, W. R., and Rupprecht, C. E. 1995. Rabies in a river otter (Lutra canadensis) intended for reintroduction. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 26(2):311-314.
ABSTRACT: Since 1982, the Pennsylvania River Otter Reintroduction Project has placed 87 river otters (Lutra canadensis) into captivity for prerelease care and clinical evaluation. A rabid otter captured by a Wildlife Conservation officer in northeastern Pennsylvania on 10 February 1992 was the only case of infectious disease detected during the project. The rabies virus infecting the otter was identified as the mid-Atlantic raccoon variant. Occurrence of rabies in an otter intended for reintroduction demonstrates the risk of spreading infectious disease during translocation projects.
KEY WORDS: river otter/Lutra canadensis/rabies/reintroduction/UNITED-STATES/DISEASE
151. Serventy, D. L. Gunn B. M. Skira I. J. Bradley J. S. Wooller R. D. 1989. Fledgling Translocation and Philopatry in a Seabird. Oecologia 81(3):428-429.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
152. Servheen, C., Kasworm, W. F., and Thier, T. J. 1995. Transplanting Grizzly Bears Ursus-Arctos-Horribilis as a Management Tool - Results from the Cabinet Mountains, Montana, USA. Biological Conservation 71(3):261-268.
ABSTRACT: A study of grizzly bears Ursus arctos horribilis in the Cabinet Mountains, Montana indicated that the future of the population was in jeopardy, and population augmentation was recommended. The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) issued an augmentation plan in 1987. The first of four projected transplants was completed in July 1990. The first transplanted grizzly bear was a 5-year-old female that weighed 71 kg. The first bear remained in the Cabinet Mountains following release and was monitored for 13 months before the radio collar was lost. This bear was visually located in the target area on 15 May 1992 approximately 19 km from the release site. Her home range from July 1990 through May 1992 encompassed 555 km2. Data regarding movements and habitat use were analyzed and compared with native grizzly bears in the Cabinet Mountains. Trapping efforts in southeast British Columbia for additional bears to transplant were again conducted in 1991 and 1992. The effort resulted in the capture of eight different grizzly bears in 1991, but none met the sex and age criteria of 2-6-year-old females. Efforts in 1992 resulted in the capture of a second 71 kg 6-year-old female (bear 258) which was released at the same location as the first bear exactly 2 years later on 22 July 1992. Movements of bear 258 from July through November 1992 encompassed 388 km2 in the target release area. This second bear emerged with a single cub in May 1993 and was radio-monitored until July 1993 when it was found dead in the target release area. No trace of the cub was found although it had been seen with its mother in late June. The cause of death is as yet unknown pending completion of toxicology reports. A third subadult female bear (286) was captured in July 1993 and released in the target area where she has remained through October 1993. Transplanting of bears can be a valuable tool in the conservation of small bear populations worldwide.
KEY WORDS:
153. Shenk, T. M. Ringelman J. K. 1992. Habitat Use by Cross-Fostered Whooping Cranes in Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 56(4):769-776.
ABSTRACT: No intensive studies have been conducted on the migration habitat requirements of whooping cranes (Grus americana). Consequently, we characterized habitats used by cross-fostered whooping cranes during the 1986 and 1987 autumn migration in the San Luis Valley (SLV), Colorado. Water depths < 30 cm, extensive horizontal visibility, and close proximity to feeding sites, loafing areas, and similar wetlands were common attributes of roost sites. Characteristics that showed no consistency among roost sites included wetland size, emergent plant composition and density, and distances to power lines, fences, and potential disturbances such as roads and residences. juxtaposition of roost sites with feeding sites and loafing areas was quantified by daily locations of individually-marked whooping cranes during each activity period (roosting, feeding, and loafing). Sexes did not differ (P > 0.05) in distances flown from 1 activity site to the next. Distances flown from roost sites to feeding sites were greater (P = 0.0002, P = 0.0004, morning and evening, respectively) than distances flown from feeding sites to loafing areas. Whooping cranes appeared to minimize daily movements by flying to a nearby feeding area and later returning to the roost complex to loaf, or by using loafing sites located nearer feeding sites than roost areas when greater (P = 0.040) distances were flown from roost site to feeding site.
KEY WORDS: SANDHILL
154. Short, J. Bradshaw S. D. Giles J. Prince R. I. T. Wilson G. R. 1992. Reintroduction of Macropods (Marsupialia, Macropodoidea) in Australia - A Review. Biological Conservation 62(3):189-204.
ABSTRACT: This paper describes six recent attempts to conserve threatened wallabies (Marsupialia: Macropodoidea) by reintroduction. All ended in failure. We place these attempts within the context of nineteen other reintroductions of macropods known to us. Success of reintroduction of macropods appears to depend critically on control or exclusion of exotic terrestrial predators. Islands without exotic predators support a success rate of reintroductions an order of magnitude higher than that of mainland sites and islands with exotic predators (82% cf. 8%). Reintroductions have generally been poorly monitored and poorly documented. Researchers have often failed to appreciate the enormity of the task of controlling introduced predators (foxes and feral cats and dogs) and herbivores (rabbits), and to make adequate use of existing technology (radiotelemetry), and have been unable to overcome the logistical problems of managing reintroductions far from their research bases. Successes in management and reintroduction of other threatened fauna in Australia suggest that effective control of introduced predators and rabbits using the poison 1080, for which many native species have a high tolerance, may provide an effective means of managing mainland reintroductions.
KEY WORDS: TAILED ROCK-WALLABY/NEW-SOUTH-WALES/CONSERVATION/BETTONGIA
155. Short, J. Smith A. 1994. Mammal Decline and Recovery in Australia. Journal of Mammalogy 75(2):288-297.
ABSTRACT: Fifty percent of all the mammal species to have become extinct worldwide in the past 200 years have been lost from the Australian fauna giving Australia the worst record for mammal conservation of any country or continent. Sixteen species from a mammal fauna of 245 are believed to be extinct, 26 species now occur only as remnant populations occupying <20% of their former ranges. Offshore islands, tropical Australia, and the mesic fringe of the continent have provided refuges where mammal communities have survived relatively intact. The drier interior regions, which include cereal growing areas, intensive and extensive pastoral areas, and the little-used Triodia deserts, have lost many species. Extinctions and declines have not occurred equally throughout the Australian fauna, but have occurred at a disproportionately higher rate among medium-sized ground-dwelling mammals in the weight range 0.035-5.500 kg. Historically, conservation of mammals has concentrated on protection from hunting and trade, reservation of land as national parks and nature reserves, and faunal surveys to map distribution and abundance. These approaches have been necessary but insufficient to either stabilize the decline of endangered mammals or to promote their recovery. The past 20 years have seen many attempts to conserve endangered mammals, either by evading the presumed cause(s) of extinction or decline by translocation to islands, or by managing these causes within reserves by controlling exotic predators, controlling or excluding exotic herbivores, or applying a particular fire pattern or regime. The most significant successes have come with effective control of exotic predators, either by establishing populations of endangered species on predator-free islands or by the intensive use of 1080 poison to control exotic predators at mainland sites.
KEY WORDS: Extinction/Recovery/Conservation/Islands/1080/Australia/ROCK-WALLABY/HABITAT/POSSUM/FAUNA
156. Slough, B. G. 1989. Movements and Habitat Use by Transplanted Marten in the Yukon Territory. Journal of Wildlife Management 53(4):991-997.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
157. Smith, K. G. Clark J. D. 1994. Black Bears in Arkansas - Characteristics of a Successful Translocation. Journal of Mammalogy 75(2):309-320.
ABSTRACT: In 1958, the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission began translocating black bears (Ursus americanus) from Minnesota to the Interior Highlands (Ozark and Ouachita mountains) of Arkansas where bears had been extirpated early in this century. This project continued for 11 years with little public input, during which time an estimated 254 bears were released. We estimate there are now >2,500 bears in the Interior Highlands of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, making it one of the most successful translocations of a Carnivora. Factors that contributed to the success include use of wild-captured animals, elimination of major factors associated with extirpation, release into prime habitats within the former range, multiple release sites, release of 20-40 animals/year for eight years, and release of mostly males prior to release of mostly females. Studies on two allopatric populations demonstrate that they are now diverging in some demographic characteristics, including litter size, cub survivorship, and adult sex-ratio. Translocation of black bears to the Interior Highlands is successful in terms of numbers of animals, but it will not be truly successful until people accept black bears as part of the regional fauna. To that end, those associated with management and research of bears in Arkansas are now focusing on public education and control of nuisance bears.
KEY WORDS: Arkansas/Black Bears/Demography/Population Biology/Translocation/Ursus-Americanus/CONSERVATION/AMPHIBIANS/REPTILES/DISPERSAL/PATTERNS/STRATEGY/MAMMALS/BIRDS
158. Snyder, N. F. R., Koenig, S. E., Koschmann, J., Snyder, H. A., and Johnson, T. B. 1994. Thick-billed Parrot releases in Arizona. Condor 96(4):845-862.
ABSTRACT: Thick-billed Parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) once ranged as far north as central Arizona, but have rarely been seen outside Mexico since the 1920s. Extirpation from the United States may have resulted mainly from widespread shooting. Experimental releases of the species in Arizona since 1986 have yielded mixed results. Birds obtained as wild-caught adults have exhibited good survival and some reproduction in the wild. Captive-reared birds have had poor survival rates due mainly to deficits in foraging and socialization, and to heavy losses to predators. Although parent-reared, captive-bred birds have performed better than hand-reared birds, and young captive-bred birds have done better than older captive-bred birds, the only birds showing good potentials for reestablishment have been translocated wild-caught adults. Present habitat quality in southern Arizona appears adequate to support a population of these parrots, but it is questionable that the species might sustain consistent populations north of the range of Chihuahua pine (Pinus leiophylla). Thick-billed Parrots appear to be highly dependent on flocking for security from predation, so their successful reestablishment may depend directly on the numbers of birds released. Principal natural enemies of the species in Arizona have been Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis), Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), and ring-tailed cats (Bassariscus astutus)-species that also occur through much of the Thick-billed Parrot's range in Mexico.
KEY WORDS: thick-billed Parrot/Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha/Arizona/extirpation causes/endangered species/reestablishment/CONSERVATION
159. Soule, M. E. Kohm K. A. 1989. Research Priorities for Conservation Biology - Introduction. Pages 1-12 in Research Priorities for Conservation Biology.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
160. Southgate, R. and Possingham, H. 1995. Modelling the reintroduction of the greater bilby Macrotis lagotis using the metapopulation model analysis of the likelihood of extinction (ALEX). Biological Conservation 73(2):151-160.
ABSTRACT: Population viability analysis of the greater bilby Macrotis lagotis was conducted using the metapopulation model ALEX. ALEX was used to examine the effect of reintroduction configurations and potential manipulations on the extinction risk of the metapopulation. More specifically, the impact of patch separation, sporadic big rains and fire on population survival was investigated. Estimates of population parameters, including survival and fecundity dispersal rate and home range size, were derived from a bilby reintroduction programme conducted in central Australia, as were parameters describing environmental quality and the impact of fire, drought and sporadic large rainfall events. The modelling results indicated that local segregation of a population to achieve replication did not change extinction risk dramatically and that an experiment for a 2-year duration (equivalent to a generation time) could be achieved at low risk with a small population. Adult mortality was of key importance in determining population survival. With the release of 12 individuals, drought and sporadic high rainfall events limited the life of the reintroduced population to a median of 8 years. In the absence of these events, median extinction time was extended to 26 years. The modelling indicated that there was little scope to reduce environmental variation (and improve the population survival prospects) through manipulation or management of the environment. However, spatially subdividing subpopulations so that they should experience appreciably different big rainfall and drought events has potential to reduce metapopulation extinction risk.
KEY WORDS: population viability analysis/reintroduction/bilby/POPULATION VIABILITY ANALYSIS/CONSERVATION/MARSUPIALIA/AUSTRALIA
161. Spalding, M. G. Forrester D. J. 1993. Disease Monitoring of Free-Ranging and Released Wildlife. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):271-280.
ABSTRACT: Diseases in free-ranging wildlife, other than those in species of economic importance or diseases of public health significance. have long been overlooked and thus are rarely monitored. Recent findings, however, demonstrate that disease agents must be considered as integral in shaping many aspects of wildlife behavior and ecology. Very few scientists are trained in or function specifically with the study of diseases of free-ranging wildlife, and funding for such projects is difficult to obtain. The application of new biotechnological tools will no doubt contribute considerably to the rapid advancement of this field. The consideration of disease in all stages of species conservation projects is especially important because of the possibilities of genetic depression of immunity and the introduction of diseases into wild of populations.
KEY WORDS: Free-Ranging Wildlife/Diseases/Disease Host Interaction/Conservation/Reintroduction/PARASITISM/POPULATIONS/FLORIDA/EPIZOOTIOLOGY/CONSERVATION/COMMUNITIES/ABUNDANCE/EVOLUTION/BIRDS/IDAHO
162. Spielman, D. Frankham R. 1992. Modeling Problems in Conservation Genetics Using Captive Drosophila Populations - Improvement of Reproductive Fitness Due to Immigration of One Individual into Small Partially Inbred Populations. Zoo Biology 11(5):343-351.
ABSTRACT: Immigration into small isolated captive and wild populations is recommended to alleviate inbreeding depression. The effects on reproductive fitness of introducing one immigrant into 10 small partially inbred captive populations of D. melanogaster were evaluated. The relative reproductive fitness of the immigrant populations (0,628) was approximately double that of the isolated populations (0.294) and about halfway between the isolated populations and the outbred base population (1.00). Every replicate population increased in fitness following the introduction of an immigrant. The improvements in reproductive fitness shown by the immigrant populations were not due to F1 hybrid vigor, as the experimental populations underwent three generations of random mating prior to the fitness tests. These results indicate substantial benefits can be gained by the translocation of as few as a single animal between small, partially inbred populations.
KEY WORDS: Translocation/Inbreeding/Wild Populations
163. Steidl, R. J. Griffin C. R. Niles L. J. Clark K. E. 1991. Reproductive Success and Eggshell Thinning of a Reestablished Peregrine Falcon Population. Journal of Wildlife Management 55(2):294-299.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: ORGANOCHLORINE RESIDUES/PREY/DDE
164. Stevens, D. R. Goodson N. J. 1993. Assessing Effects of Removals for Transplanting on a High-Elevation Bighorn Sheep Population. Conservation Biology 7(4):908-915.
ABSTRACT: Transplanting Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) from established herds to initiate new populations or augment small herds is a common management practice. While transplant herds have frequently been studied, data on effects of removals on source herds are lacking. Assessment of these effects is necessary when removals are large relative to the size of the source population and when maintenance of a viable source population is a management goal. The Colorado Division of Wildlife removed 53 bighorn sheep in three trapping operations during 1979-1984 from a bighorn herd estimated (in 1976) at 120 total sheep that ranges largely within Rocky Mountain National Park. The park, in cooperation with the Division of Wildlife initiated this study in 1986 to assess size and trend of the source population and to provide a basis for recommendations on future removals We found that removals were made from a female-juvenile subpopulation (the South Never Summer subpopulation) that used only part of the known bighorn range. We estimated its size at 55-75 sheep and found it was increasing slowly. Recruitment levels indicated that seven years were required to replace ewes removed during one trapping operation Bighorn ewes of this subpopulation raised lambs on an average of every other year, and maternal care of yearlings was common. Density-independent factors such as the short growing season and severe winters experienced by bighorn sheep on this high elevation range limit their capability to respond to removals. Because female juveniles normally recruit into their mother's subpopulation and because interchange is rare among female-juvenile subpopulations; removals may severely affect individual bighorn subpopulations. We recommend that removals be based on productivities of source herds rather than on assumed compensatory responses.
KEY WORDS:
165. Strickland, M. D. 1990. Grizzly Bear Recovery in the Contiguous United-States. Pages 5-9 in Bears - Their Biology and Management.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
166. Stussy, R. J. W. D. Edge and T. A. O'Neil. 1994. Survival of resident and translocated female elk in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 22(2):242-247.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
167. Stuwe, M. Nievergelt B. 1991. Recovery of Alpine Ibex from Near Extinction - The Result of Effective Protection, Captive Breeding, and Reintroductions. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 29(1-4):379-387.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
168. Tango, P. J. Michael E. D. Cromer J. I. 1991. Mating and 1st-Season Births in Interstate Transplanted River Otters, Lutra canadensis (Carnivora, Mustelidae). Brimleyana (17):53-55.
ABSTRACT: River otters were transplanted from North Carolina and Maryland into the West Fork River, W. Va., during February and April 1987. Birth of young and mating by the released otters occurred within 2 months of release. This represents the only known occurrence of birth during the same year following transplanting.
KEY WORDS:
169. Tear, T. H., Scott, J. M., Hayward, P. H., and Griffith, B. 1995. Recovery plans and the Endangered Species Act: Are criticisms supported by data? Conservation Biology 9(1):182-195.
ABSTRACT: To address recent criticisms of the recovery process of the U.S. Endangered Species Act and to search for ways to improve recovery efforts we evaluated all recovery plans approved by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service as of August 1991. As expected with rare species, we found an overall lack of detailed biological information presented in recovery plans. Information on species' distributions was most common, being mentioned in 88% of the original recovery plans, while information on species' abundance, population demographics and dynamics (in descending order) was much less available. Biological information tended to be sparsely distributed among taxonomic groups. We found that threatened and endangered species were at risk of extinction, yet differentiation between threatened and endangered species' status in the wild and their recovery goals was not evident. Based on criteria developed by Mace and Lande (1991) (and depending on choice of minimum criteria), population-based recovery goals set in recovery plans, if achieved would not improve the level of endangerment for 60-73% of vertebrate species. With few exceptions a taxonomic bias was detected in the recovery process that favored animals over plants, vertebrates over invertebrates, and birds and mammals over fish and herpetofauna. The average time in years between listing and original recovery plan approval however, was significantly shorter for plants (4.1) than animals (11.3), and for invertebrates (6.3) than vertebrates (9.4). It took an average of at least five years between each step in the recovery plan process (from listing to recovery plan approval and subsequent revision). Only 3.5% of the species in recovery plans were identified as keystones, and little recent emphasis has been placed on recovery plans covering multiple species. Finally though public education was recommended frequently (92%) in recovery plans, public attitude assessment tons virtually ignored (<2%). We suggest possible explanations for some of these findings, discuss the implications in light of the Endangered Species Act reauthorization, and present recommendations for future recovery plans and conservation strategies.
KEY WORDS: CONSERVATION/EXTINCTION/ECOLOGY/TESTS
170. Tegelstrom, H. and Sjoberg, G. 1995. Introduced Swedish Canada geese (Branta canadensis) have low levels of genetic variation as revealed by DNA fingerprinting. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 8(2):195-207.
ABSTRACT: The Swedish, Finnish and Norwegian population of Canada geese (Branta canadensis), now amounting to some 30-50000 birds, was founded by only five individuals. We used DNA fingerprinting to assess the level of genetic variability in minisatellite loci of Swedish Canada geese from two northern areas. For comparison, we estimated the minisatellite variability in lesser white-fronted geese (Anser erythropus), barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) and a reintroduced stock of Canadian giant Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima). The mean similarity between Swedish Canada geese was 0.76 +/- 0.15, which is higher than recorded for any other natural bird population. The high similarity implies that a fourfold increase of homozygosity has taken place in this population. The probable cause for the loss of variation is the low number of birds originally introduced and a history of. repeated translocations, leading to a sequence of founder events. As a consequence of the high similarity, it has not been possible to use DNA fingerprinting for determination of parenthood in the population studied.
KEY WORDS: DNA fingerprinting/Canada goose/Branta canadensis/introduction/genetic variation/POPULATIONS/SWEDEN/BIRDS/VARIABILITY/DIVERSITY/COLONIES
171. Thibault, J. C., Bretagnolle, V., and Dominici, J. M. 1995. Recovery of a resident population of osprey on Corsica. Journal of Raptor Research 29(3):204-207.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS: corsica/Mediterranean/osprey/Pandion haliaetus/population recovery/population size
172. Towns, D. R. 1994. The role of ecological restoration in the conservation of Whitaker's skink (Cyclodina whitakeri), a rare New Zealand lizard (Lacertilia: Scincidae). New Zealand Journal of Zoology 21(4):457-471.
ABSTRACT: A programme to improve the conservation status of Whitaker's skink (Cyclodina whitakeri), previously confined to <20 ha of usable habitat, is described. The programme involved eradication of introduced Pacific rats or kiore (Rattus exulans) from 18 ha Korapuki Island (Mercury Islands, north-eastern New Zealand), documentation of the response of five species of resident lizards to release from the effects of rats, and transfer of 28 Whitaker's skinks from nearby Middle Island between 1988 and 1990. Following removal of rats from Korapuki, resident lizard numbers at some coastal sites increased within 12 months and rose 30-fold over 5 years, but measurable increases of numbers of lizards in forest areas took up to 6 years. Fifteen of the founding Whitaker's skinks on Korapuki Island have been recaptured 36 times since their release, and five Korapuki-born young have also been caught. The population is now estimated as 33. The increase in number of resident lizards and the success of the introduction of Whitaker's skinks demonstrate that predation rather than habitat deficiencies were responsible for the depleted resident lizard fauna on Korapuki Island. Repatriation strategies for species with low intrinsic rates of increase are proposed.
KEY WORDS: islands/Pacific rats/eradication/lizards/robust skink/Cyclodina alani/tuatara/Sphenodon punctatus/conservation/transfer
173. Towns, D. R. Ballantine W. J. 1993. Conservation and Restoration of New-Zealand Island Ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8(12):452-457.
ABSTRACT: An ecological collapse has precipitated pioneering conservation initiatives in New Zealand. Many terrestrial communities in the New Zealand archipelago have been devastated by over-exploitation, introduced mammals and habitat destruction. More recently, marine ecosystems have been depleted by over-harvesting. To mitigate against these losses, conservation in terrestrial environments has focused on protection of species and habitats. A similar approach is now under way in marine environments with the establishment of 'no-take' marine reserves. On land, conservation is now reaching beyond protection to the eradication of pests from islands and restoration of their terrestrial ecosystems. Restoration on islands not only reduces threats to rare species; it also raises opportunities to investigate how species interact. In the sea, marine reserves not only enhance the diversity of depleted marine communities; they may also augment stocks of commercially harvested species. These initiatives provide many lessons that could be applied to degraded habitats elsewhere.
KEY WORDS: TRANSLOCATION
174. Trulio, L. A. 1995. Passive relocation: A method to preserve burrowing owls on disturbed sites. Journal of Field Ornithology 66(1):99-106.
ABSTRACT: The Western Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea) is declining throughout its range, in part as a result of urban development and other physical disturbances to owl burrows. One way to protect owls from disturbance is to allow birds to relocate to artificial burrows created in a safe location. This method, passive relocation of birds using artificial burrows, is described in detail and the results of passive relocations at six sites in northern California are presented. These results suggest that placing artificial burrows as close as possible but within approximately 100 m of burrows to be destroyed is expected to attract the evicted owls. Passive relocation appears to be a reliable way to move owls short distances and it presents fewer risks to birds than capturing and relocating them long distances.
KEY WORDS:
175. Ulfvens, J. 1993. Breeding Habitat Characteristics in a Newly Established Population of the Mute Swan Cygnus olor on the Finnish West Coast. Ornis Fennica 70(2):106-109.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
176. Ullrey, D. E. 1993. Nutrition and Predisposition to Infectious Disease. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):304-314.
ABSTRACT: Nutritional status, host defense, and susceptibility to infection are closely interconnected. General malnutrition or deficiencies of individual nutrients can compromise the immune system and have specific effects. For example, zinc deficiency produces involution of the thymus and decreased production of T lymphocytes. In addition, the ability of macrophages to ingest and kill microorganisms is diminished. Vitamin A deficiency results in metaplastic changes in epithelial tissues, reducing their effectiveness as barriers to microbial penetration. Humoral and cell-mediated specific immunity may be impaired by faulty T-cell differentiation or function and depressed splenocyte blast transformation to T-cell mitogens. Deficiencies of other nutrients have comparably serious effects. As a consequence, animals that are marginally to acutely deficient in nutrient intake may be unprepared to deal with the extraordinary circumstances of relocation and are unusually susceptible to infection. The stresses associated with translocation, removal from the wild, or reintroduction of animals from captivity into the wild are sufficiently serious that first consideration must be given to the acceptability, safety, quality, and quantity of the food supply. Otherwise, animals are exposed to unacceptable risks of infectious disease, and the success of efforts intended to be life preserving rather than life threatening is jeopardized.
KEY WORDS: Nutrition and Disease/Nutrition and Immunity/Nutrition and Infection/Nutrition and Host Defense/Nutrition and Translocation/Nutrition and Reintroduction/PROTEIN-CALORIE MALNUTRITION/MARGINAL ZINC DEPRIVATION/CELL-MEDIATED-IMMUNITY/VITAMIN-A-DEFICIENCY/RHESUS-MONKEYS/MICE/RATS/RESPONSES/SUPPRESS
177. Viggers, K. L. Lindenmayer D. B. Spratt D. M. 1993. The Importance of Disease in Reintroduction Programmes. Wildlife Research 20(5):687-698.
ABSTRACT: Disease may play an important role in the decline or extinction of small, isolated animal populations. Disease also has thwarted attempts to reintroduce some endangered captive-bred species. Despite this, the impacts of disease rarely have been considered in the planning and design of reintroduction programmes. A remnant wild population could be decimated by a disease cointroduced with reintroduced animals. Alternatively, diseases that are endemic in wild animal populations could be fatal for those immunologically naive individuals that are reintroduced. We contend that the planning of reintroduction programmes should include an examination of the potential impacts of disease on extant populations and on animals targeted for release. A number of steps are outlined to reduce disease risk and to minimise the probability of failure of reintroductions because of disease.
KEY WORDS: TRICHOSURUS-VULPECULA/NEW-ZEALAND/CONSERVATION/TRANSLOCATION/TUBERCULOSIS/INFECTION
178. Vonessen, L. 1991. A Note on the Lesser White-Fronted Goose Anser-Erythropus in Sweden and the Result of a Re-Introduction Scheme. Ardea 79(2):305-306.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
179. Westlin, L. M. 1995. Fostering in an African rodent, Saccostomus campestris (Cricetidae). Journal of Zoology 237(Part 1):163-167.
ABSTRACT: Fostering was studied in females of an African rodent Saccostomus campestris, the pouched mouse, which, contrary to most other rodents, is a solitary species. Females will only tolerate their own offspring and other adults are viciously attacked at all limes except during the short period of pro-oestrus, when a male will be temporarily accepted. Alien pups (n = 857) of different age-groups (0-30 days) were introduced to lactating females (n = 191) with their own pups (n = 1053) of different age-groups (0-20 days) over a period of three years. The total number of pups per female was made up to 10 (e.g. 7 own + 3 alien or 4 own + 6 alien). The 'foster mother' readily accepted and successfully reared alien pups provided they were less than 21 days of age when introduced. Weaned alien pups, introduced when 25 or 30 days old, were viciously attacked by the foster mother and had to be removed, although in the breeding colony, pups that were allowed to remain with their mother after weaning were not attacked. It appears that up to weaning-age, female Saccostomus campestris may not distinguish between their own and alien offspring, but rather between suckling and weaned pups.
KEY WORDS:
180. Wiley, J. W. Snyder N. F. R. Gnam R. S. 1992. Reintroduction as a Conservation Strategy for Parrots. Pages 165-200 in Beissinger, S. R., Snyder, N. F. R., eds. New World Parrots in Crisis. Smithsonian Inst Press, Washington, DC .
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
181. Wilson, M. V. Hammond P. C. Kauffman J. B. 1992. The Value of Restoration and Management in Protecting Biodiversity. Northwest Environmental Journal 8(1):201-202.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
182. Wilson, R. J. Drobney R. D. Hallett D. L. 1992. Survival, Dispersal, and Site Fidelity of Wild Female Ring-Necked Pheasants Following Translocation. Journal of Wildlife Management 56(1):79-85.
ABSTRACT: Criteria that evaluate translocations of wild ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) into unoccupied habitats are needed. Consequently, we conducted an 18-month telemetry project (1988-89) to evaluate survival rates, site fidelity, and reproductive dispersal of 122 wild ring-necked hen pheasants translocated to a managed area in central Missouri. Hen survival from release (early February) to the peak of nesting (10 June) was 26% and 42% in 1988 and 1989, respectively. Spring-autumn and autumn-spring hen survival was 49% and 86%, respectively. Mammalian and avian predators were the major agents of known hen mortality, causing approximately 72% of total losses. Translocated hens displayed fidelity to the managed target area as all birds remained within 3 km of the release site, with 95% of the locations within 1.6 km of the release site. Mean reproductive dispersal from release site to nesting site was 1,076 m. Survival and movement variables of translocated pheasants were similar to the survival and movements of established pheasant populations, and may be useful as criteria for comparison and evaluation of future translocation efforts.
KEY WORDS: RADIO/TRIANGULATION/BIRDS/BIAS
183. Winkler, D. W. Mccarty J. P. 1990. Method for Transplanting Nests of Barn Swallows. Journal of Field Ornithology 61(4):426-430.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
184. Wood, F. Wood J. 1993. Release and Recapture of Captive-Reared Green Sea Turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the Waters Surrounding the Cayman-Islands. Herpetological Journal 3(3):84-89.
ABSTRACT: Cayman Turtle Farm released 26,995 yearling and hatchling green sea turtles. Chelonia mydas, into the waters surrounding the Cayman Islands, between 1980 and 199 1. Released turtles were the offspring of the farm's captive breeding colony. Tagged turtles were regularly recaptured and re-released locally and demonstrated growth rates of 3.0 kg/year. With turtles recaptured from other regions of the Caribbean, recapture rate for turtles released as yearlings was 4.1%. 66% of the locally recaptured turtles were infected with cutaneous fibropapillomas, a condition increasingly observed among turtle populations worldwide.
KEY WORDS:
185. Wood, F. Wood J. 1994. Release and Recapture of Captive-Reared Green Sea Turtles, Chelonia mydas in the Waters Surrounding the Cayman Islands (Vol 3, Pg 84, 1993) (Correction). Herpetological Journal 4(3):115.
ABSTRACT:
KEY WORDS:
186. Woodford, M. H. 1993. International Disease Implications for Wildlife Translocation. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 24(3):265-270.
ABSTRACT: The relocation of wild mammals and birds for the reinforcement of a population or for the reintroduction of a species that has become extinct in its natural range has become a popular wildlife management technique. Concern has been expressed that these translocated wild animals, which often originate in captive-breeding facilities in a distant country, may bring with them diseases and parasites that could threaten the health of the valuable domestic livestock and wildlife resources of the recipient country. At present, the International Zoo-Sanitary Code of the International Office of Epizootics (OIE) in Paris, which is implemented by all 126 nation members of OIE, applies only to the important diseases of domestic livestock that may affect wild animals. However, proposals are now being made for the collection, through the OIE global network, of data on the worldwide occurrence of wildlife diseases. Following this initiative, regulations for the international movement of wildlife will be reviewed, as will proposals for the standardization of both diagnostic procedures for wildlife diseases and vaccination protocols for the immunization of wildlife. All veterinarians involved in wildlife translocation projects must cooperate closely with national and international animal disease control agencies so that regulations will be both effective and realistic.
KEY WORDS: International Translocation/Disease Risks/Oie Regulations